basis shared content unit technologies(TREK) constitute a way of structuring the knowledge of the subject area (applications), methods for selecting structural elements and their ordering in the synthesis of specific teaching aids.

Creation of applied electronic encyclopedia preceded by the development of the application ontology. The tasks that arise in this case resemble similar problems of building information models in the form of STEP application protocols in automated industrial systems, although the management of semi-structured knowledge in a learning system looks more challenging task than managing industrial product factual data.

Structuring knowledge in the development of an ontology is to highlight the concepts (entities) of the application. A set of concepts forms a thesaurus. The characteristics of concepts, their inherent properties and relationships between concepts are described in articles called modules (objects, elements of educational resources or shared content units). Modules constitute the subject knowledge base. Sets of concepts and modules, together with the corresponding knowledge base management system, form an applied electronic encyclopedia (PEE).

The development of a specific training manual begins with the selection of a subset of modules from the subject knowledge base. The choice is determined by the given curriculum or information needs of the user expressed in one form or another, taking into account the results of preliminary testing of his readiness to perceive the material. Further, a linear sequence is formed from the selected modules and the form of the material is adapted to the individual characteristics of the student. In the process of studying the material on the generated manual, the possibility of facilitated navigation through different parts knowledge base.

The first tool environment for creating versions of modular textbooks adapted to specific user requests was the CTS system, created in the early 90s of the last century at Moscow State Technical University. N.E. Bauman. Subsequently, a number of ideas of the concept of modular textbooks and PEE were embodied in the SCORM document (Shareable Content Object Reference Model) by the ADL organization, created in 1997 by the US Department of Defense and the US Department of Science and Technology.

In parallel with the development of TREK, a technology for collecting information in a corporate server and its free editing by users, called wiki technology, is gaining ground. On its basis, within the framework of the Wikipedia project on the Internet, the creation of encyclopedias on various branches of knowledge has already begun, with the participation of all comers as authors and editors. This project has existed since January 2001. By the end of 2003, the Russian-language part of the Wikipedia encyclopedia already contained 1275 articles. Despite the fact that both TREK and wiki technologies are aimed at creating knowledge bases in the form of encyclopedias, there are significant differences between them both in their intended purpose and in approaches and methods of accumulating and using knowledge. Uncontrolledly filled wikipedia does not have the means and is not suitable for compiling tutorials from its articles.

An applied electronic encyclopedia can correspond to one academic discipline or a group of disciplines representing a larger application, and a training module or SCO (Shareable Content Object) can correspond to a specific topic or concept (entity) considered in this discipline or application. For example, a module may contain material corresponding to the content of one paragraph or part of a paragraph of a traditional textbook.

For each topic in the encyclopedia, it is desirable to have several alternative modules in order to allow adaptation to specific learning conditions. Modules may differ in methodological features, detail and style of presentation of the material, links to certain examples, etc. In the module, elementary parts of the content can be highlighted that correspond to a specific pedagogical goal or some aspect of the description. Examples of elements can be a brief definition of a concept, an informal description of an object or process, a formal description, proof, examples, control exercises and tasks, reference material, historical background, etc.

Maintenance of the encyclopedia consists in the development and addition of new modules, in the correction or elimination of obsolete material. Maintenance is possible not only by a predetermined circle of authors, but also by users who create their own versions of the ES. Consequently, two types of authors appear - authors of modules and authors of specific versions of ES.

The PEE management system is designed to support the procedures for the synthesis of textbooks and manuals and to perform the functions of maintaining the thesaurus and the base of modules. Let us list the main functions of the PEE management system.

1. Search and elimination of cycles. The PEE model is a directed graph, the vertices of which correspond to the modules, and the edges correspond to the inputs and outputs of the modules. The presence of a cycle in the graph indicates the illogicality of the presentation of the material - in the end, a certain concept is determined through itself. The control system must detect such cycles and issue recommendations for their elimination.

2. Ordering modules. After loops are eliminated, ordering can be done by ranking the vertices of the graph and applying heuristic criteria in ambiguous situations.

3. Putting hyperlinks. This can be done, for example, by matching terms in the text with terms in the thesaurus.

4. Choice of synonyms and designations. The system automatically replaces synonyms and designations of quantities with the main variant offered in the thesaurus, or with the variant specified by the user.

5. Selecting a module if there are duplicates. The selection criteria can be such module attributes as author, type, last modified date.

6. User interface - navigation through the thesaurus, displaying a set of terms from the thesaurus selected by the user, etc.

7. Formation of supermodules, i.e. top-level modules, which are a combination of lower-level modules typical for the application. In the future, metadata is formed for the supermodule and it can be used on a par with the original lower-level modules.

8. Management of versions of the textbook, maintenance of dictionaries.

9. Coordination of data formats, registration of modules, etc.

A module interface (metadata) is a specification that includes interface and registration attributes. Interface attributes serve to negotiate this module with other modules as part of the compiled versions of the tutorials and include lists of terms used in the module. The terms corresponding to the concepts defined in the module are highlighted. Such terms are called output (module outputs). Terms used but not defined in the module are input terms (module inputs). Examples of registration attributes include names of module authors, modification dates, module certification data, and so on.

We note the main advantages of PEE:

1) a significant simplification and acceleration of the development of new teaching aids that correspond to new achievements in science and technology, the changing demands of industry, the needs of new emerging disciplines, etc., since a significant part of the new manual can be covered by existing modules;

2) ease of maintenance of online textbooks, since local teachers can independently make changes by creating their own versions of manuals by replacing or adding modules, including modules of their own design;

3) expanding opportunities to optimize the information support of the learning path chosen by students in open education systems.

To support PEE in its management system, it is necessary to have tools for automatically generating interfaces based on thesauri and coordinating modules in versions based on interface attributes.

The thesaurus expresses the developed application ontology. One line of the thesaurus corresponds to one concept (entity, term) of the application and includes the following data:

concept; short definition; [list of synonyms];

URL list. (4.1)

The entry list contains references to the concepts that are used to define the given concept. The list of URLs includes links to encyclopedia modules in which this concept is determined. The lists of synonyms, abbreviations and designations are needed by the management system to coordinate modules developed by different authors when they are included in the compiled tutorial. The square brackets in (4.1) denote the optionality of the corresponding element of the string.

It is necessary to distinguish several variants of encyclopedias for the same application (Fig. 4.3). The basic version, together with the EI created on its basis, is under the control of a certain Center. In the branches of the Center, the basic version can be expanded, corrected, forming local versions. Local versions are used to synthesize EI adapted to the needs of a specific contingent of trainees. Finally, end users can either use the EI sent by affiliates or create their own versions (analogues of lecture notes).

Rice. 1. Versions of textbooks based on the electronic encyclopedia

Structuring knowledge and bases of educational materials in the form of PEE is the first, but very useful step towards further intellectualization of the AES. Future systems will be able to interact with the student in a virtual classroom environment, determine their current needs and automatically generate portions of educational material that satisfy these needs. The creation of the first PEE brings the emergence of intelligent AOS closer.

Big encyclopedia of crafts.(32 Mb). This book will teach you how to make many fun things with batteries and magnets, make toys - homemade, airplanes, iron tunnels, arrange tea parties in a dollhouse and many, many other amazing crafts.

The pages of the book show how to make funny surprises to prank your friends and family. As well as origami, paper construction of moving models, folding toys, postcards, surprises and more. great amount all sorts of things. If you like to do something with your own hands, or want to learn how to make things, then this encyclopedia is for you. Children's encyclopedia download

The complete encyclopedia future first grader.(15Mb). The book will help the child to successfully prepare for school. The book presents fascinating lessons on various aspects of the development of a preschooler: speech development, literacy, familiarity with the outside world, the development of logic, thinking, and other mathematical abilities. As well as familiarity with the English alphabet and some English words.

The encyclopedia teaches not only to count and read, but also to think, reason logically, fantasize and enjoy the process of learning. But these qualities are the key to success in school. Children's encyclopedia free download

All materials are presented for informational purposes only. All rights to them belong to their respective owners. The site administration cannot be held responsible for materials posted by users.

Over the past ten years, we have found ourselves in a different world. The computer is no longer a luxury, but a means of solving elementary problems. He is an intermediary in obtaining almost any information. New generations of young people easily master this complex technique and become full-fledged citizens of a computer civilization. Our country has stepped into the computer era, and it is already impossible to leave it.

One of the most important inventions of the last century was modern storage media. In 1945, the American scientist Vannevar Bush in his essay "You might think" described a device that he called "memex". There a person keeps all his books, records, correspondence. They can be viewed on the screen. A little time passed, and fiction became fact. The computer provides the opportunity described by Bush. You can put a huge amount of information into it and then use it without much difficulty.

The modern optical CD, or otherwise CD-ROM, is currently the most common machine-readable storage medium. ROM is an abbreviation for Read Only Memory - you can only read information from it and you cannot add anything. Laser recording is carried out once, but can be stored almost forever and read an unlimited number of times.

A very significant part of CD-ROMs are multimedia discs, which reveals their capabilities - the involvement of a wide variety of means of fixing and transmitting information.

As a rule, a well-made CD-ROM is a synthesis of text, graphic illustrations, sound samples and comments, video clips, animation and animation, logical connections between elements (primarily an information retrieval system), computer programs (on the basis of which all this is done and is shown).

In the 90s of the XX century, with the development of multimedia technologies, electronic encyclopedias appeared on.

Computer technologies have significantly changed the nature of access to encyclopedic information - the search for articles has become almost instantaneous, it has become possible to insert into articles not only high-quality photographs, but also sound fragments, video, animation.

The advantages of electronic encyclopedias and reference books include an excellent reference and information and search system, which is always present in them. It provides a quick search by a number of features - alphabetical, contextual, chronological, geographical, etc. Therefore, finding the necessary reference, abstract, article or drawing is much easier than in a conventional library.

Development of foreign electronic encyclopedic publications

In the early 1990s, Microsoft President Bill Gates conceived the idea of ​​developing a multimedia encyclopedia on CD-ROM. As a result, in 1993, the multimedia encyclopedia Microsoft Encarta appeared on the market. A year later, about 6 million discs were sold. In 1997, it had a 60 percent market share of CD-ROM encyclopedias in the US.

Encarta is widely known in Europe and Asia, where localized versions of it are already appearing in various languages. In terms of total circulation, the Encarta encyclopedia approaches that phenomenal category of publishing leaders, which includes the Bible, the works of Lenin and Mao Zedong.

Latest, most complete version Encarta Premium DVD 2006(released in 2005) contains more than 68 thousand articles, various statistical information, many images, video fragments, historical maps, built-in and interactive map of the world (1 cm 5 km scale, larger for metropolitan areas)

Well-known American encyclopedias on CD-ROM are also widely known - New Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, Wold Book Multimedia Encyclopedia, Compton's Multimedia Encyclopedia

Encyclopaedia Britannica is the largest and most authoritative encyclopedia in English. In 1995, Britannica released its first disc, however, without music and video, only with text and illustrations (only in 1998 did a truly multimedia Britannica appear on CD-ROM and in 1999 a DVD version appeared

The articles of the Britannica multimedia encyclopedia are accompanied by pictures, sound and video clips, various map tables and, quite traditionally, cross-links that allow you to move from one article to another without deviating from the main subject of the request.

Domestic electronic encyclopedias.

The appearance in Russia in the mid-90s of the first electronic encyclopedias gave rise to great expectations. In two years, several dozen multimedia encyclopedias were published, among which were successful discs (for example, the "Artistic Encyclopedia of Foreign Classical Art" by the Cominfo.

In 1996, the universal "Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius" appeared on CD-ROM. It was the first general multimedia encyclopedia in Russian. The encyclopedia is based on the well-known printed "Big Encyclopedic Dictionary" of the "Great Russian Encyclopedia" publishing house. This dictionary is truly unique: it almost miraculously compresses huge factual information from the 30-volume "Great Soviet Encyclopedia" (3rd edition, 1969-1978 ). The creators of the multimedia encyclopedia supplemented 85,000 short articles with illustrations, sound, video clips, interactive maps, and animation. All together it was quite worthy of the title of the national universal multimedia encyclopedia. In the autumn of 1997, a new version of the "Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius" was released.

There are already quite a few encyclopedias on CD-ROM. This type of publication replenishes quite quickly.

Short review modern electronic publications.

· Universal Encyclopeia:
Brockhaus online, The World Around Us, Universal Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius, All-in-one: Encyclopedic Reference. Specialized: Great Russian Legal Encyclopedia, Biomedical Encyclopedia, Peoples and Religions of the World, Theatrical Encyclopedia, Economic Dictionary (Cyril and Methodius), Encyclopedia of Religions,

· Regional:
Americana. English-Russian Linguistic and Cultural Dictionary, Bashkortostan: Brief Encyclopedia, Odessa - Encyclopedia about Odessa, Omsk Region: Encyclopedic Reference, Pskov Encyclopedic Dictionary, Traditional Culture of the Peoples of the European North-East of Russia, Encyclopedia of the Ivanovo Region, Japan from A to Z: (Popular Encyclopedia)

· Special:
Aviation from A to Z: Encyclopedia of World Aviation, Car Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius, Palaces of St. Petersburg, Internet. Your way out, Culinary Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius, Komi Mythology (Ural Mythology. Vol. 1), Extelopedia of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Economic Terms, Encyclopedia of Arms of Cyril and Methodius, Encyclopedia of Pets of Cyril and Methodius, Encyclopedia of Health of Cyril and Methodius, Encyclopedia of Cinema of Cyril and Methodius, Encyclopedia of Moscow University (1755-1917), Encyclopedia of Vegetables, Encyclopedia of Personal Computer Cyril and Methodius, Encyclopedia of Rock, Jazz and Pop Music of Cyril and Methodius, Encyclopedia of the Third Reich, Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (Yu. Vitkovskaya), Encyclopedia fiction (Vl. Gakov), Encyclopedia of miracles, mysteries and secrets, Encyclopedia of etiquette of Cyril and Methodius, This day in history, GraphInfo - encyclopedic dictionary on computer graphics, multimedia and CAD, World Wide Coins-Encyclopedia: XX century on world coins.

· Personal:
Big Russian Biographical Dictionary, Orenburg Pushkin Encyclopedia, Orenburg Tolstoy Encyclopedia, Orenburg Shevchenko Encyclopedia

With the development of Internet technology, the emergence of "Wikipedia" became possible - a unique encyclopedia compiled and edited by everyone. Despite the seeming accessibility, including for destructive influence, in terms of quality and scope, "Wikipedia" (the English version, more than 1.3 million articles as of August 17, 2006) is at least not inferior to world-famous publications.

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LECTURE 2

Electronic encyclopedias
The World Wide Web (World Wide Web or WWW for short) is the name of the most widespread Internet application today, built on the use of hypertext. A computerized hypertext document is a file (text, graphic image and any other piece of information) that has links to other files (documents) in its structure. So, for example, if any electronic work mentions institutions, persons, events and any other phenomena about which there is already information in the networks, the author is able to make hyperlinks to them (the words in the text are colored in a different color). The reader, referring to this material, if desired, can click on the link of interest and in a matter of seconds be transferred to this data, regardless of whether they are on the server in the next room or on the computer of another continent. good example The principle of hypertext operation can be an article in an encyclopedia containing numerous references, for which it is no longer necessary to refer to other volumes, to look for the corresponding section in them. You just need to point the arrow at the desired fragment, and it will immediately appear on the monitor.

Electronic encyclopedias

As you know, an encyclopedia is a scientific or popular science reference publication containing a systematic body of knowledge. Encyclopedia material is usually arranged in alphabetical order. There are universal (for all branches of knowledge and practice - large and small), sectoral (mathematical, physical, chemical, musical, literary, etc.), national, regional (Moscow, St. Petersburg, etc.) encyclopedias. "Encyclopedia or a universal dictionary of crafts and sciences" was published in the middle of the 18th century in England by E. Chambers. In France, the 35-volume "Encyclopedia or explanatory dictionary of sciences, arts and crafts" was published by D. Diderot and J. D "Alamber (1751 - 1780).

Nowadays, the most famous universal encyclopedic book publications in the world are: Brockhaus and Efron's Encyclopedic Dictionary (Russia), The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (USSR), Britannica (USA and Great Britain), Americana (USA), Bolshoy Brockhaus" and "Meyer's Encyclopedic Dictionary" (Germany), "Great Larousse" (France), etc.

All these book editions consist of dozens of volumes, take up a lot of space on the bookshelves and are published for many years. So, the last, 3rd edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia contained 30 volumes and was published from 1970 to 1977. Of course, such multi-volume book editions become obsolete long before the release of the last volume. In addition, searching for the desired article in them is inconvenient and takes a lot of time - first you need to take the desired volume and then find the desired article in it.

In 2004, the publication of a new Russian encyclopedia began. New technologies and modern methodological techniques make it possible to fit into a 12-volume edition a concentrated collection of information from 20-30-volume encyclopedias published in the past. The first volume devoted entirely to Russia has been published. However, the entire edition is designed for several years and will inevitably become outdated even before its completion.

The creation of CD-ROM (read-only) optical discs with a capacity of 650 MB opened up completely new possibilities for creating electronic editions of encyclopedias - much more compact and cheaper. In book editions there are only texts of articles and illustrations for them (black and white and color). The CD-ROM uses multimedia technology to combine on one optical disc not only texts, illustrations, but also sound and video fragments. In addition, all electronic encyclopedias are equipped with convenient search systems for the desired article, which speed up this process hundreds of times compared to book publications.

Online encyclopedias

Since ancient times, the achievements of human thought and experience have been reflected in dictionaries and encyclopedias. Even the term "encyclopedia" itself came from a combination of two Greek words enkyklios and paideia, which in Russian would sound like "learning the whole range of knowledge." It is customary to strictly systematize materials in encyclopedias in order to facilitate finding necessary information. Thanks to the "translation" of weighty multi-volume paper "Talmuds" into electronic forms, it became possible to provide such directories with powerful and convenient search mechanisms, as well as systems of hypertext links (or links to other Web resources in the case of online versions). It is customary to distinguish between universal, sectoral, national, and regional encyclopedias.

Most of the major online directories are Internet versions of publications that have been released (or are about to be released) on CD. Consequently, they also have good built-in search mechanisms, but, in addition, they are constantly being improved and supplemented with new sections, which determines their main advantage over CD and DVD "brothers". First of all, this remark concerns such well-known "electronic founts of human wisdom" as Britannica on-line, Microsoft Encarta and encyclopedias from "Cyril and Methodius". Perhaps this is one of the most informative sites on the web.

Encyclopedia of myths

www.pantheon.org/mythica

More than 5 thousand myths and legends are collected here, and the articles are constantly updated and supplemented. Gods and goddesses, unicorns and dragons, horrors and monsters, spirits and ghosts from famous epic works of various peoples of the world come to life on these pages. The information on the site is strictly systematized both by countries in which certain legends were born, and by mythological characters. The web server is equipped with a good search engine. There is a lack of images. The site will be useful to ethnographers and folklorists, as well as to everyone who is interested in this subject.

"Golden Pages" RuNet

The "World of Encyclopedias" (www.encyclopedia.ru) unites almost all known this moment Russian-language online encyclopedic publications.

"All-in-one. Handbook" (www.sci.aha.ru/ALL/index.htm) contains information on all areas of knowledge. Its "paper" primary sources are: reference book "Alpha and Omega", "Chemical Encyclopedia", "Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary", "Mathematical Dictionary", "Small Atlas of the World" and others.

The "Open Society Encyclopedia" (www.ose.ru) is one of the universal ones, based on the English-language resource Collier's Encyclopedia.

"Brockhaus on-line" (www.agama.com/bol) is essentially the second edition of the "Small Encyclopedic Dictionary" by Brockhaus and Efron (V.1-4, 1907-1909) plus several other encyclopedias and dictionaries published before the beginning of the 20th century. century.

"Big Russian Biographical Dictionary" (kolibry.cyberpalm.com/brbs1.htm). The purpose of this project is to create an illustrated electronic biographical encyclopedia based on Russian pre-revolutionary sources (the 86-volume Encyclopedic Dictionary, the 29-volume New Encyclopedic Dictionary, the 25-volume Russian Biographical Dictionary by A. A. Polovtsov and the 57-volume "Encyclopedic Dictionary" by brothers A. and I. Garnet).

Information and legal server "VK-Kodeks"

FROM contains more than 3 thousand articles on the main terms and concepts of Russian and foreign law, the texts of Russian regulatory documents, a description of the legal systems of the countries of the world. The service is paid, but there is also a demo mode. On weekdays, due to a large number of requests, the server speed is significantly reduced. The site is equipped with a mechanism for contextual search of documents by keywords.

www.webopedia.com

Perhaps the word "webopedia" will soon become firmly established in our lexicon. True, in Russian it has a slightly negative connotation, since it is more like a diagnosis. If we, for example, characterizing the mental abilities and knowledge of a friend, say: "Not a person, but a walking encyclopedia," this will sound quite flattering. However, the nickname "walking webopedia" can be taken as an insult. Nevertheless, a site with such a diagno... sorry, name has long won well-deserved popularity among users. By becoming a regular client of this Web server, you will certainly learn to distinguish LAN from WAN, HTML from VRML, SCSI from EIDE. In other words, any computer terms and Internet technologies will become clear and "transparent" to you. The site contains a powerful cataloged search engine, daily updated "hot fifteen" (Top 15 Term) of the most frequently requested terms. In addition, you can sign up for our newsletter here and finally stop worrying about any technology in the rapidly changing world of computers going unnoticed by you.

niac.natm.ru/graphinfo

GraphInfo is a Russian-language online encyclopedic dictionary of computer graphics, multimedia and CAD. It highlights the basics of the theory and the most frequently asked questions related to the practical use of such systems. In addition, the site is rich in interesting links to other Internet resources. To facilitate the task of finding the necessary information allows a developed search mechanism (thematic, alphabetical, contextual). Each of the visitors can take part in replenishing the dictionary and improving its content, for this it is necessary to fill out the "Adding a term" form.

E encyclopedia of world aviation

www.coffee.ru/Avia

Since the time when "the mind gave us steel arms-wings, and instead of the heart - a fiery motor", much has changed in the world aircraft industry: the "flaming motor" became reactive, and the "steel arms-wings" learned to hold "nuclear clubs". In general, read about all these achievements on the electronic pages of the encyclopedia. It contains over 3,000 articles on various models of aircraft and helicopters, including all their main performance indicators. Articles are arranged in accordance with the English alphabet, there is a search mechanism for keyword. Unfortunately, the publication does not contain review articles about aviation, biographies of aircraft manufacturers, and there is a lack of illustrations. The CD version of the encyclopedia was released last year.

Theater Encyclopedia

www.zhurnal.ru/teatr/enciclop.htm

Despite its youth, the site has managed to gain popularity among theatergoers. It consists of several sections: the theatrical dictionary, names, performances, theaters, the history of the Russian theater, the history of the foreign theater, oriental theaters, puppet theaters, the history of opera, the history of ballet, theatrical tales and anecdotes, and others. Many articles are accompanied by illustrations, a detailed bibliography, and links to Web resources. The materials are systematized, but there is no keyword search.

Encyclopedia of reptiles

www.herp-edia.com

Today in the USA, in European countries, and even in our country, chameleons, lizards, crocodiles, monitor lizards, snakes gradually began to move into the category of pets. But before you start such a pet at home, you should carefully read the description of the selected species and the rules for its maintenance. The Encyclopedia of Reptiles will certainly help you with this. The articles on the site are systematized, many of them are provided with high-quality photographs, there is no contextual search mechanism for the keyword.

Peoples and religions of the world

www.cbook.ru/peoples/index/welcome.shtml

This encyclopedia contains about 2 thousand articles about ethnic and religious communities that exist today in the world. The site consists of the following sections: review articles, world religions, peoples of the world, general concepts, glossary of terms, classifications of peoples and religions, calendar of religious holidays, applications, links and others. One of the main "paper" primary sources is the encyclopedia "Peoples and Religions of the World". The material is systematized, however context search keyword missing. The site is a prototype of the future CD of the same name.

And here is another address on the Web on this topic that deserves your attention - hoaxer.plus.ru/religions/encyclopaedia/index.html. Here you will find the "Encyclopedia of Religions", which can be recommended to anyone who is interested in the history and modernity of the religions of the world.

Panic Encyclopedia

w www.freedonia.com/panic/

I would classify this encyclopedia as a philosophical one. As you know, in modern Western philosophy there are many different currents and directions. For example, some thinkers claim that a "sad event" lies at the heart of our entire existence, others believe that the "Higher Mind" provokes all human deeds, others argue that fear rules the world (fear of losing a job, a loved one, fear of the dark, fear for the child, fear of war, etc.). Probably, the authors of this site should also be included among the latter. They believe that fear and panic are the driving force behind the culture of postmodernism, they have a primary influence on all types of human activity. Hence the names of the corresponding sections of the encyclopedia: Panic Finance, Panic Feminism, Panic Killing, Panic Lovers, Panic Money, Panic USA, Panic Cyberspace, Panic Penis, Panic Zombies, etc. There are no illustrations, as well as a search engine, on the site.

Collection of 10 online encyclopedias "Cyril and Methodius" mega.km.ru Cyril and Methodius software products are well known to our readers. On the pages of "Home PC" we told, perhaps, about all the encyclopedias of this Russian company released on CD. Nevertheless, the appearance of their online versions on the same server with thawed a unique phenomenon in RuNet. The variety and quantity of information presented here is impressive: in total, the site contains more than 130,000 articles and 30,000 illustrations. The "Collection" includes the following encyclopedias: universal, automotive, weapons, pets, health, cinema, computers, cooking, music and etiquette. In addition, you will find here three online dictionaries: explanatory (Russian), English-Russian/Russian-English and economic. All editions are characterized by a variety of author's styles and some logical disproportion of articles. Unfortunately, occasionally there are also errors, however, their number is constantly decreasing. The site is intended for the widest range of users.

Britannica online 3The 2-volume "paper" version of the famous Encyclopædia Britannica is not cheap - $1250. Until recently, you also had to pay for using its online electronic copy on the Internet. This amount was much less than the cost of the "original source", and, of course, the flow of those wishing to use such a service on the Web did not dry up. Websites www.eb.com and www-lj.eb.com are still popular in Europe and America. However, in November last year, a free Internet version of the well-known reference publication appeared at britannica. com. The opening of this site was not accompanied by a wide advertising campaign, so the developers hoped that this event would be quite calm, without too much excitement. But on the very first evening after the launch, the Web server was literally drowned in a stream of hundreds of thousands of requests, and the next day, following the appearance in the morning newspapers of information about the opening of the service, a second even more powerful wave came. The company had to urgently upgrade computers and software site. Today, the britannica on-line encyclopedia is gaining well-deserved popularity among domestic users, who especially revere free services on the Web.

Microsoft Encarta Online Deluxe O The amount of data collected in Microsoft Encarta products can amaze even the most skeptical. Not so long ago, a new Microsoft version Encarta Reference Suite 2000, which comes on a DVD-ROM greater than 6 GB ("Home PC", No. 11, 1999). The Encarta Online Deluxe site can be considered as a separate powerful source of information, as well as an organic addition to the DVD-ROM. By the way, owners of the Reference Suite 2000 get the opportunity to work for free with the full version of the Web server, which can be accessed directly from the encyclopedia shell. The rest of the users, having registered, will also be able to surf the Encarta information spaces absolutely free of charge for 7 days, and by depositing about $50 to the developers' account, they will be able to extend the pleasure for one year. And it's worth it! Tens of thousands of articles and useful Web links, an interactive atlas, 360-degree panoramas of many cities around the world, online lessons and games, and much more. The site has a powerful search engine that allows you to get well-structured answers to any queries. Encarta Online Deluxe has tens of millions of customers around the world - don't miss the opportunity to join their ranks!

Encyclopaedia Britannica: from paper to digital

The computer communications system, largely shaped by the Internet, ushered in a new era of information business. Experienced veterans and energetic newcomers to the Internet market are rapidly mastering the virtual universe, just as pioneers once mastered the Russian North or the American Wild West.

The ability to deliver any kind of data to any distance and at any time, overnight led to obsolescence traditional methods information consumer service. Digital technologies demanded other solutions - flexible, risky, sometimes paradoxical.

Encyclopaedia Britannica serves as a striking example of the paradigm shift of the entire system of activity in modern conditions. An analysis of its work in the last decade allows us to visually trace the general trends in the evolution of the information business and determine the direction of its development in the near future.

For more than two centuries, the Encyclopaedia Britannica has been regarded as the most authoritative source of knowledge throughout the English-speaking world. Since 1768, 14 editions of it have been published, and at different times among the authors were Gilbert Chesterton, Walter Scott, Bernard Shaw, Sigmund Freud, Leon Trotsky, Albert Einstein. It is no coincidence that the purchase of the most solid world encyclopedia was considered almost an honorary ritual in the life of more than one generation of families in Western countries.

Britannica's popularity peaked in 1989, when the last 32-volume edition quickly sold out both in private collections and in educational libraries. The future of the encyclopedia, which seemed cloudless, was, however, suddenly clouded. In the early 1990s Microsoft has developed a strategic plan to bring computers equipped with Windows into the homes of ordinary US citizens. An integral part of the plan was the creation of an electronic encyclopedia, which was to be supplied free of charge as a bonus to all users of the operating system. Microsoft turned to Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. with a proposal for cooperation, which, however, was frivolously rejected. Microsoft forwarded the offer to Funk & Wagnalls, and in 1993 the Western computer market was filled with an electronic encyclopedia under the Microsoft Encarta brand. In the newly appeared product, numbering about 16 thousand articles at that time, of course, there was no such solidity and solidity as that of Britannica, however user-friendly interface and the presence of many multimedia files satisfied the needs of most schoolchildren and students. Sales of the Britannica began to fall catastrophically.

The Britannica struck back less than a year later. In 1994, the website www.eb.com appeared on the Internet, which contained the full version of the encyclopedia, access to which was carried out by an advance paid subscription, which at that time was $ 85 per year. Britannica thus became the first encyclopedia to appear on the Web. A little later, the electronic version of the Britannica was also released on CD-ROM, but due to the poor design (a small amount of graphics, audio and video files), it was not very successful.

Microsoft had no choice but to follow Britannica's lead and put Encarta on the World Wide Web (www.encarta.msn.com). The access rules were practically the same: the search was free of charge, but you had to pay to get the full texts of articles and illustrations.

In 1996-1998 the situation remained outwardly rather stable. However, the ubiquity of computer and telecommunication technologies objectively undermined the former power of the Encyclopædia Britannica. The printed version, despite the fact that its cost was constantly decreasing (now it is $ 1250), was less and less interesting potential clients. Users are already accustomed to working with computer databases and getting the necessary information from the Internet, turning to print publications only as a last resort. Paid subscription via the Internet, the cost of which was reduced to $5 per month, did not bring the expected income. Users preferred to access free data that can be retrieved with little effort from the Web using search engines and help resources. Only a sharp change in the strategy in the field of delivering information to the user could reverse the situation.

The end of the 1990s was marked by the unprecedented scope of the Internet business. A wave of universal "portalization" gained momentum, which at that time sometimes brought simply fabulous dividends. The business model of the portal assumed profit not directly from the sale of the created product, but indirectly - from the placed advertising, commission deductions for switching to paid sources, sales of profile goods on the site. Naturally, the basis of this model was based on the high attendance of the server.

It was this model that was chosen for the site, which completely changed the business strategy of Britannica. Britannica.com Inc., a subsidiary of Britannica.com Inc., was specifically spun off to manage digital projects, and on October 19, 1999, www.britannica.com was launched to provide free access to the full version of the Encyclopædia Britannica. The demand was so great that the very next day, due to the huge influx of visitors, the company's employees were forced to suspend the server to make technological changes that provide more bandwidth.

Now the content of the latest edition of the encyclopedia with additions and corrections of the annual issues up to 1999 is posted on the site. In total, these are more than 72 thousand articles, many of which are serious scientific works. Most of the materials are linked to each other by hyperlinks, which makes it easy to explore all aspects of the topic and discover its new facets. In most cases, the text is accompanied by illustrations, tables, and, sometimes, video files.

However, an encyclopedia, even the most authoritative one, can only serve as a starting point for research. An in-depth study of the subject requires turning to additional sources that more fully reveal the subject. Therefore, the text of the encyclopedia is only the core of the site. In addition, britannica.com includes a resource guide to the Internet's "Best Web Sites" and a collection of full-text articles from 75 magazines, including Time, the Economist, Esquire and more.

Both of these links have independent value. Compiled by the editors of Britannica, the guide "Best Web Sites" covers more than 125,000 of the best, in their opinion, English-language Internet sites, has a logical scientifically based structure and exemplary annotations. Equally carefully selected and professionally annotated articles from periodicals. The selected electronic library formed in this way further emphasizes the fundamental nature of the content of the site.

The Britannica interface is user-friendly and intuitive. The search engine has a simple and advanced query forms. For serious searches, the second one is optimal, allowing you to specify the search area, the location of the search term in the document, and the query conditions. The result of the search, performed without any restrictions, contains links to documents from all three named sources: the encyclopedia, the "Best Web Sites" directory and the collection of articles. The user is thus given the opportunity to start research with encyclopedic materials, expand understanding of the subject through the publication of reputable journals and make a detailed analysis by referring to the relevant resources of the World Wide Web.

Britannica.com also has a special option for the sequential research of individual branches of knowledge. With the help of hierarchical menus, you can explore sections, moving from general to specific. The user still has the option to select an encyclopedia, resource guide, or collection of journal articles as the primary source.

The main difference between britannica.com and other portals is the reliability, completeness and authority of the data provided, inherited from the printed version. The depth and integrity of the source base, combined with the high quality of the materials selected, has rightly placed britannica.com among the most trusted sites on the Web.

The opening of free access allowed Britannica to sharply outperform its nearest competitor in almost all indicators. Microsoft immediately took a similar step, opening up free access to Encarta, but the version presented there, which is not a copy, but rather an addition to the CD version, cannot compete with Britannica in terms of information volume. In addition, the large volume of multimedia objects included - and Encarta was originally conceived as a multimedia encyclopedia - makes it difficult to use with dial-up access.

Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. itself. is undergoing a period of strategic transformation. The realization that in the digital age it is impossible to maintain leadership by focusing on the production of exclusively printed products, entails a major restructuring within the corporation. Technological processes are changing, and, consequently, the functions of departments, organizational structure and financial policy. "Along the way" the very content of publishing activity is being transformed. If the cycle of work on the printed edition eventually comes to a complete conclusion, then the online electronic edition can be improved constantly. Prices for online products are very flexible, but at the same time - less stable. The costs of physical production of books, their storage and distribution are reduced, but the costs of maintaining the server, paying technical consultants, web designers, etc. are increasing. It seems that sooner or later all publishers who strive to keep up with the times will have to go through this stage.

In the meantime, in the fall of 2001, it is planned to start publishing the next 40-volume printed edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. It will, however, be intended more for bibliophiles than for the general public, who are unable to purchase books worth around $3,000. The vast majority of customers will be satisfied with the free electronic version on the Internet or $70 CD-ROM or DVD editions.

In the future, the struggle of encyclopedias may spread to the market mobile devices(PDAs and Cell Phones). It is likely that local (national, sectoral and thematic) encyclopedias will be developed, which are designed to fill the gaps in the content of universal publications. The only thing you can be sure of is that the upcoming competition will lead to an increase in the quality of information products, and ordinary users will benefit from this first of all.

LECTURE 3

ELECTRONIC DICTIONARIES
Today, no one needs to explain why it is so important to know foreign languages. At work and at home, we constantly encounter foreign words and expressions, and the need to understand them arises more and more often. This is especially true for those who are engaged in business, deal with computer technology, and regularly use the Internet. The rapid development of modern life is directly reflected in the language - new words, terms and expressions appear, the meaning of old words changes. Traditional "paper" dictionaries keep up with these rates worse and worse. They are being replaced by electronic dictionaries - computer programs on CDs, allowing you to cope with a foreign text or translate the necessary information into a foreign language. What is an electronic dictionary? Is it just a modern convenient shell of a “paper” dictionary, or is it the beginning of a new stage in the development of lexicography?

A brief excursion into the history of lexicography

Compiling language dictionaries is not an easy task. The task is not only to collect as many words as possible and place them in alphabetical order. It is important to provide each word with a dictionary entry that gives its translation or interpretation, taking into account all possible values and ways of using. Lexicography deals with the practice and theory of compiling dictionaries (from the Greek lexikos - related to the word, grapho - I write).

In Russia, the period of rapid development of lexicography fell on the 19th century. Then dictionaries of various types were created - historical, foreign words, bilingual, explanatory. Later, in the USSR, lexicography became the leading branch of applied linguistics. This was explained by the need to fix the current state of Russian and other languages ​​of the country, to consolidate the language norms for many hitherto unwritten peoples. Thus, bilingual dictionaries for the peoples of the USSR were created - Russian-national and national-Russian. The expansion of translation activities and the teaching of foreign languages ​​in educational institutions required new Russian-foreign and foreign-Russian dictionaries. From 1918 to 1962, about 9,000 different dictionaries were published in the Soviet Union, including dictionaries of a new type: dictionary of compatibility, word-formation, morphemic, phraseological, and others.

The development of any science takes place in close interaction between theory and practice. The theoretical achievements of lexicography lead to the birth of a new dictionary, the further life of which, in turn, allows testing and refining the theory. Perhaps, such interaction is most clearly and effectively reflected in the works of Russian linguists Igor Aleksandrovich Melchuk and Yuri Derenikovich Apresyan, the creators of the “Explanatory and Combinatorial Dictionary of the Russian Language”.

The dictionary was based on the theory of models “Meaning-Text” by I. A. Melchuk, the idea of ​​which is to list the entire range of possible “meanings” expressed in the language by one word or another, and then for each meaning to indicate the ways of its lexical expression. This approach will help to explain to any foreigner why in Russian “strong rain” is pouring rain, and “strong sleep” is not a heavy sleep at all, but a deep sleep, and “strong applause” is neither torrential nor deep, but stormy.

Academician Yu. D. Apresyan is known for his work in the field of lexical semantics, which studies the ways of interpreting the meanings of a word. He owns the idea of ​​creating “detailed portraits” of different words. Conventionally, they can be called “everything about the verb “to know” or “everything about the preposition “by”. Under the leadership of Apresyan, in 1993, the New Large English-Russian Dictionary was published in three volumes (NBARS). This is a significantly updated, expanded by approximately one and a half times and methodically improved version of the well-known two-volume "Big English-Russian" dictionary edited by prof. I. R. Galperin, published in 1972. NBARS is the most complete English-Russian dictionary in the world (250,000 entries), the most up-to-date and methodologically sound dictionaries of this class.

New wine - in new wineskins

With development computer technology in lexicography, a new branch has appeared - electronic lexicography, which is engaged in the creation electronic dictionaries. You can use such a dictionary using a computer, loading it from a disk as a normal software application.

It is often believed that a dictionary on a computer is just an electronic image of some “paper” dictionary, equipped with a convenient user interface and machine search tools. When describing electronic dictionaries, much attention is paid to their convenient “computer” form, and the content of the dictionary: vocabulary, structure of the dictionary entry, relevance of meanings, as a rule, is not analyzed. It turns out that the creators of electronic dictionaries simply “pour old lexicographic wine into new electronic bellows”. The task of electronic lexicography thus reduces only to the exact transmission and careful preservation of canonical dictionary texts in a new “electronic” shell.

However, this point of view underestimates all the possibilities of computer technology. New form The dictionary makes it possible to eliminate many of the inevitable shortcomings of “paper” lexicography and thereby raise it to a qualitatively new level.

Dictionary for everyone and for everyone

The main feature of an electronic dictionary is the ability to bypass the fatal contradiction of “paper” lexicography, which consists in the following: the more information a dictionary offers, the more developed its scientific apparatus, the more difficult it is to use it.

For this reason, most "paper" dictionaries are divided into two categories. The first is popular dictionaries, relatively convenient, but rather primitive. How often did you fail to find the right word in a pocket dictionary, or did its translation not suit you with its poverty? The second is voluminous professional publications, unsuitable for quickly obtaining information. It takes a certain courage to take a two-kilogram Talmud off the shelf and start leafing through it in search of the necessary word.

Electronic dictionaries combine large volume with ease of use. This is achieved, first of all, thanks to the machine search mechanism. To find a word in an electronic dictionary, it is usually enough to simply type it in the command line of the dictionary, press “Enter” - and the translation will pop up in a separate window. Some dictionaries allow you to translate words without leaving your text editor or other office application you are currently working with. To do this, select the desired word and press a specific key combination.

The task of electronic dictionaries is to meet the needs of the widest possible audience, so their main quality should be USEFULNESS. They should respond to user requests with different, ideally any language experience. This is achieved by structuring a dictionary entry, which makes it possible to single out the main types of information about the word in it (translation options, use in set phrases, synonyms, antonyms, etc.). Each word information element can be a hyperlink to another dictionary entry. The hyperlink system allows quick access to the information you need without a grueling search, with one click.

It is very important that structuring allows you to form the look of a dictionary entry in accordance with the request. For example, if the user is only interested in mathematical vocabulary, he can specify this in the query, and the dictionary will show him only the translation applicable in mathematics. If the user is interested in the maximum range of meanings, the dictionary will show him all the variety of translations.

Electronic dictionaries can "talk". That is, all words or part of them - the most commonly used vocabulary - can be voiced with a “live” or synthesized sound. This feature is completely absent in the "paper" dictionaries and is very helpful for those who are still learning a foreign language. For example, the Lingvo dictionary contains 5,000 words voiced by an Oxford announcer (Oxford pronunciation is considered for of English language"classic").

Modern vocabulary language

Language is a reflection of real life. And life does not stand still: new branches of production, science, business, and culture are emerging. New words, terms, set phrases come into ordinary colloquial speech. Is it possible to imagine such words as “holding”, “tranche” in the speech of our fellow citizens ten years ago? The expression “end user” would have puzzled them, and no one could have guessed what the word “soap” would mean in computer jargon email(free Russian transcription of the English word “e-mail”).

All this vocabulary cannot be adequately reflected in “paper” dictionaries for the simple reason that they take too long to prepare. Thus, Muller's well-known English-Russian dictionary, which combines relative ease of use (one volume, albeit heavy!) and completeness of content, was published in 1960 and has since undergone only cosmetic changes in 1978 and 1994.

In fact, many dictionaries that were formed in the linguistic atmosphere of the middle of the century are very outdated. They do not indicate the modern meanings of old words, and many new words are simply missing. Literally transferring such dictionaries to computers is futile. This has become particularly evident with the development of the Internet: most of the Web pages consist of English texts written in a living modern language, with abundant use of colloquial vocabulary and slang. It is unlikely that any of the existing English-Russian dictionaries can answer this challenge. Only electronic dictionaries can solve this problem.

Write - Read

Most of the “paper” dictionaries are aimed at a person who reads in a foreign language, that is, a person who finds “supporting” words in a text that he does not understand, helping to build a general semantic picture. The person “writing”, in addition to knowing all the words used, must clearly understand how these words are combined with each other, what prepositions are used, whether there are stable expressions that convey the necessary meaning.

Alas, if the “paper” dictionary satisfies the needs of the Reader, then it most often simply ignores the interests of the Writer in a non-native language! But in our age of electronic communications, almost every Internet user has become a Writer!

And here the electronic dictionary is much more useful than the “paper” one. Even a literal reproduction of a decent "paper" dictionary on a computer makes it possible to extract from it the information so necessary for the Writer, buried in the depths of dictionary entries. For example, the user can open several dictionary entries on the screen at once, characterizing all the meanings of the word “get” (take, receive, get bored, etc.) both in one language and in another, and thus learn all the nuances of using the words.

However, a more correct way is to think about the Writer in advance, when compiling a dictionary. To take into account his interests, one must be able to describe the ways of forming complex phrases. For example, how to convey in English the meaning of “rigging or falsifying the results of elections”? This expression does not apply to idiomatic ones, therefore it should not be looked for in the dictionary as a whole. On the other hand, it cannot be correctly translated even in parts. It is most logical to look for this expression in the article “election” (elections). However, for it to appear there, the desire of the dictionary developers to place it there is necessary.

In order for the Writer to feel the shades of the word, it is necessary to bring in the dictionary the maximum possible number of synonyms - words that are close in meaning. For example, the English verb break means, in particular: 1) to break, destroy, smash and 2) to tear, tear, tear off. For the first case, the words crush (crush, crush) and smash (shatter to smithereens) will be synonymous. The second meaning is close to the words separate (separate, separate - a more delicate sense) and tear off (tear off, tear off). Through a common “map” of synonyms, it becomes clearer how to translate a word with one or another semantic connotation into a foreign language. Illustrative examples are very useful, especially on the use of words with prepositions or in set phrases. For example: “leave here”, “leave somewhere”, “leave for something”, “leave” in the meaning of “absent”.

It is best to provide information about synonyms, phrases and cases of use in the native language of the writer: if the Writer is Russian, then in the Russian-English dictionary, if he is an Englishman, then in the English-Russian dictionary. It's no secret how much better explanatory English dictionaries help in solving the painful problem of which word to use. But the rigid orientation of the dictionary to translation, and not to the DESCRIPTION of the language, makes its use by the Writer difficult and unobvious.

The place of the lexicographer is in the ranks

An electronic dictionary is a living organism. After its creation, the work of the lexicographer not only does not stop, but becomes more intense. Each new word, phrase or phraseological phrase that has entered into widespread use, as well as new meanings of familiar words and concepts, should appear in the electronic dictionary as soon as possible and take their proper place in the dictionary entry. That is why it is important to involve in the development of electronic dictionaries not only programmers, but also language specialists - linguists and lexicographers.

On the Russian market a large selection of electronic language dictionaries is presented. The most famous dictionaries are: MultiLex (MediaLingva), Lingvo (ABBYY), CONTEXT (Informatik JSC), POLYGLOSSUM (Polyglossum Inc. USA & “ETS” Publishing House, Russia), Alphabyte (New Media Generation). All programs are Russian and are supplied on CD-ROMs in different versions and configurations.

Which dictionary is better?

Assessing the quality of a dictionary is not easy. To do this, several parameters must be taken into account. Firstly, the content of the dictionary is the number and structure of dictionary entries, the completeness and relevance of the vocabulary presented in them. Secondly, the capabilities of the software shell in which the dictionary is enclosed (search speed, interface convenience, required amount of memory, compatibility with other software applications and operating systems). Thirdly, the quality of voicing foreign words (live sound or synthesized).

Taking into account all these factors, the best dictionaries today are MultiLex and Lingvo. CONTEXT, POLYGLOSSUM and Alphabyte lag behind them both in content and program capabilities. However, in some cases they may have their own advantages.

General Dictionaries

If you are a professional - philologist, linguist, translator, MultiLex Professional is the most suitable for you, which presents the most complete vocabulary. English-Russian MultiLex is accurate digital copy famous three-volume New Large English-Russian Dictionary (NBARS). MultiLex is a polyglot dictionary. It is indispensable for those who translate from English, American, French, German, Spanish, Italian, and even from Turkish and Tatar. MultiLex can search for phrases and examples of the use of words in a query containing one or more members of a phrase in any order. “Mixed” requests containing words in two languages ​​are also allowed. MultiLex is able to search for a Latin word. This can be useful for those who need botanical and zoological terminology. A significant drawback of MultiLex is its low search speed.

The most modern English vocabulary is presented in Lingvo. The dictionary was created specifically for electronic display by the ABBYY applied linguistics group based on more than a dozen of the best English and Russian dictionaries: the Oxford English Dictionary (1992), Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (1998), Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (1995), NBARS (1993), "The Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. the picture of modern English would be clearly incomplete.

Lingvo is fast and allows you to translate a large portion of text at once. Thanks to the multi-window interface, you can keep several dictionary entries open at the same time. This is especially useful if you need to understand the nuances of the meanings and ways of using several words that are close in meaning.

Translation from Russian

All dictionaries indicate the presence of a Russian-English dictionary. However, only Lingvo gives a well-developed article on the Russian word. The remaining dictionaries contain a search mechanism for a Russian word rather than its translation. For example, MultiLex responds to the request “Time” instead of a card with a translation, which gives a list of several hundred dictionary entries of the English-Russian dictionary, which contains the word “time”. It is convenient to use such a dictionary only when translating phrases and words with simple semantics. In practice, it is best to use the Russian-language dictionary Lingvo. It is especially useful for those who are in constant correspondence with foreign friends and colleagues.

Special Dictionaries

MultiLex, Lingvo, CONTEXT and POLYGLOSSUM offer not only general, but also a large set of special dictionaries. Sometimes they are included in the main package, but more often they are sold on separate discs for an additional fee.

There are especially many special dictionaries in CONTEXT and POLYGLOSSUM. So, CONTEXT 3.51 includes more than 30 general and special dictionaries, among which are dictionaries of English difficulties, advertising and marketing, computer science abbreviations, religious terms, international fishing, military-political, perfumery and cosmetics, automotive terms, music and computer sound processing, solar energy and others.

POLYGLOSSUM contains many dictionaries for various industries - leather and footwear, chemical, woodworking, oil and gas, food, textile and others.

Lingvo offers 14 general and specific dictionaries. All of them are collected on one disk Lingvo 6.0.

In June 1999, Lingvo manufacturer ABBYY came up with an interesting initiative. She invited everyone to post their own dictionaries on the site www.lingvo.ru. Today the site already contains several author's dictionaries available for free use and distribution. Among them are such exotic ones as a dictionary of hacker terminology, a glossary of network terms, a dictionary of terms and abbreviations related to oil and gas pipelines, a dictionary of terms related to industrial cutting and sewing, pattern making, and others. There is a competition for the best author's dictionary.

Talking Dictionaries

The sound of foreign words can be heard in MultiLex, Lingvo, Alphabyte. Of course, provided that your computer has a sound card.

In the MultiLex dictionary, the headings of all dictionary entries are voiced. However, the sound is not “live”, but synthesized by a speech synthesis program (licensed from the Voice Technologies Club). This reduces the quality of pronunciation and does not allow you to convey live intonation. The use of synthesized sound is explained by the fact that “live” sound is expensive and takes up too much space.

Lingvo 6.0 includes 5,000 words (the most common vocabulary) voiced by speakers from Oxford.

Best voiced by Alphabyte. Although it is inferior to other dictionaries in terms of vocabulary, each word in it is pronounced by five different living voices - male and female. This is especially useful for those who are just starting to learn English.

Online dictionaries

The site of the MediaLingua company (www.medialingua.ru) presents a free on-line version of the MultiLex dictionary.

Explanatory dictionaries and encyclopedias on the Internet

Unfamiliar words lie in wait for us everywhere. Sometimes it is enough to open a newspaper or hold a glance at street advertising in order to feel the inferiority of one's erudition. In the language spoken and written today, the terms of science and technology, art and religion are mixed, a stream of borrowings from English and no longer quite understandable language of the last century, the lexicon of computer scientists and businessmen, politicians and criminals. Maybe, briefing, weekend and establishment, the unacceptability of which Solzhenitsyn complained to the Russian ear, is already almost as familiar to specialists as lawn or violet color, which at one time revolted the compiler of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, Vladimir Dahl.

What is the use of complaining about the clogging of the native language? Since he is alive, his stream should carry everything. Only time will judge - what to stay, and what to settle in the silt. Our reader's concern is simpler: to understand what it is about. It’s good if you have a shelf at hand with a system of dictionaries and encyclopedias, but they don’t always have the answer. So it's time to turn on the computer.

In software stores you can find whole line dictionaries and encyclopedias on CD. Computer versions are not only incomparably more compact than paper versions, but also more convenient to work with - following a link requires not flipping through a new volume, but a mouse click; The search engine will always help you find the right term. Of course, dictionaries and encyclopedias are also widely represented on the Russian Internet - from large projects to no less interesting thematic dictionaries created and updated by enthusiasts.

It is best to start searching from the server http://www.km.ru. The company "Cyril and Methodius", which produces encyclopedias on CD-ROM, presents here their online versions, united in the Megaencyclopedia. The most complete and voluminous is the Universal Encyclopedia created on the basis of the TSB. Specialized encyclopedias are represented by automotive, culinary, medical and others.

Sergey Moskalev's project “Brockhaus on-line generative encyclopedia”, hosted on the server of Agama company http://http://russia.agama.com/bol/, will introduce you to the Russian language and culture of the late XIX - early XX century. "Brockhaus" is also replenished with the words modern language, but selectively and slowly, apparently wanting to remain committed to the classics. Retro style. Here ( http://russia.agama.com/oz_demo.htm) you can work with the explanatory dictionary of S.I. Ozhegov.

Computer technologies and the Internet have themselves generated a whole stream of vocabulary in our Newspeak (as a rule, more or less “Russified” English terms). Dictionaries from Formosa companies can serve as a location in it. http://www.formoza.ru/tech_bred/dictionary/content.htm and Cat Software http://www.orc.ru/~catserv/glos/f_glos.htm, as well as the explanatory dictionary "Terms and jargon of the Internet" by journalist Andrey Travin http://sacura.chernovtsy.ua/guide/glosary.htm.

Terms for typography and fonts are explained in the Dictionary of Sergey Novikov http://typo.novikov.com/glossary/index.htm. Regulatory concepts, terms and definitions from the current legislation can be found at http://www.plugcom.ru/~poisk, a dictionary of nuclear energy - at http://archive.zlo.ee/atomsec/vocabbeg.html. A concise maritime dictionary awaits you in Kaliningrad, a Russian outpost in the Baltic: http://baltica.koenig.su/balticazdv/knots/navydic.htm.

An explanation of terms and concepts related to religions and beliefs of different countries and peoples can be found at http://express.irk.ru/1000/religion/dict/index.htm. Dictionaries dedicated to Orthodox and church lexicon http://www.spas.tver.ru/vocab.htm and http://diam4.npi.msu.su/calendar/life/Index.htm V.P. Vikhlyantsev's dictionary will help students of the Bible http://home.ptt.ru/bible-dictionary.

Dictionary of the history of culture of the twentieth century V.P. Rudnev ( http://kulichki.rambler.ru/moshkow/CULTURE/RUDNEW/slowar.txt) - in fact, an encyclopedic cultural treatise. It caused a mixed reaction among experts and a discussion on the network: the author was reproached for a non-academic approach, subjectivity, and inaccuracies. One thing is certain: this work will be useful not only to philologists and the humanities, but also to all those who are interested in the history of culture.

And here is the “Dictionary of the New Russian” http://ww.quicklink.com/~chelya/nrdictionary.html and "Thieves Dictionary" http://www.bratok.com/dictionary/dictionary.htm will be useful to a novice reader of modern detective stories and will be indispensable for any intellectual who wants to improve his speaking skills :-). By the way, a dictionary with a description of such “faces” of letters and punctuation marks - the so-called emoticons, you will find at http://www.machaon.ru/board/smilik.txt.

Be sure to check out the “Encyclopedias, Dictionaries and References” section of the http://ww.download.ru server, which contains an extensive collection of free and shareware software from Russian developers. Here there are dictionaries, recipes, manuals for working with programs, and various databases - you can't count everything. Here, as well as on the page http://www.aha.ru/~lexicon, you can also find the next version of the universal concise explanatory dictionary “TOLK” compiled by the author of this article, made in the form of a Windows help system file.

Finally, one cannot fail to mention the most interesting project proposed by V. Perelman to create on the Internet, if possible, a complete and continuously updated folk explanatory dictionary of the Russian language ( http://www.russ.ru/krug/99-04-15/perelm.htm). A dictionary living in real time along with the language would be a real treasure trove. Could Vladimir Dal dream of such a thing?

However, such a project requires an enormous amount of work and a high scientific and methodological level. It is unlikely that its implementation is possible only by the forces of enthusiasts. Will this idea inspire Russian philologists, will there be an institute or department ready to take patronage over the dictionary of the living Great Russian language of the 21st century? One would like to hope that this will happen, and in the year 2000 Science and Life will once again have a reason to turn to the topic “Dictionary and Computer”.

GLOSSARY FOR ARTICLES

Hypertext- text in which individual words or phrases (hyperlinks) are highlighted (in color, font, underline, etc.). If you click on a hyperlink, you can get another text (or picture) on the screen or go to another part of the document. The term “hypertext” was introduced by Ted Nelson back in the 60s. Hypermedia is a broader concept that refers to documents that include multimedia information, such as sound or video. The World Wide Web, or the World Wide Web, is built on the principle of hypermedia. Without hyperlinks, the WWW would be just a bunch of isolated pages, like unknown islands in a vast sea.

Interface- interface device, connecting link. User interface - a shell program that communicates between a person and a computer, facilitating work. They talk about a convenient, friendly interface, etc.

Linguistics(from lat. lingua - language) - the science of language, linguistics.

Semantics(from Greek semantikos - denoting) - all content, information transmitted by the language or any of its units (word, grammatical form of the word, phrase, sentence). Also ``a section of linguistics that studies this content, information.

Dictionary entry - an element of language dictionaries, “everything that is written about a given word”: its meanings, transcription, examples of use, etc.

Idiom(idiomatic expression) - a stable language combination that has the meaning of the whole, often not derived from the meaning of individual words. Often the words included in the idiom are not used separately from each other. Examples of idioms: “smack nonsense”, “the horse did not roll”, “rest in the bose”, “God forbid”.

Thesaurus(from the Greek thesauros) - a dictionary that demonstrates the system of lexical relationships in the language. In the thesaurus dictionary, for each word, in addition to its meaning, there is also a list of synonyms and sometimes antonyms. The most famous thesaurus - "Roger's Dictionary" - was compiled in America in the middle of the 19th century.

obscene vocabulary- obscene, obscene words and expressions, curses.

Wikipedia: free multilingual encyclopedia http://ru. wikipedia. org

Mega-encyclopedia of the portal "Cyril and Methodius" http://www.

Dictionaries of the Russian language on the portal "Diploma. ru" http://slovari.

Encyclopedia "Circumnavigation" http://www.

Electronic information and educational resources

Information system "Single window of access to educational resources"window.

Federal portal "Russian education" www.

Russian educational portal www. school.

http://www. ilp-p. /sakhalin/island/island. htm - Sakhalin Island (a popular geographical outline with a history of development)

http://www. /Region/history. htm - History of Sakhalin

http://www. anthology. rchgi. - Medieval Library

http://www. / - The World History

http://www. chronos. - The World History

http:/// - Ancient Rome

http://www. / - Middle Ages

http://lers. - World history in faces

http://www. Hist. – Moscow State University. History department

Geography

http://www. ethnos. – Ethnography of the peoples of Russia

http://www. ilp-p. /sakhalin/island/island. htm - Sakhalin Island (a popular geographical outline with a history of development)

Biology

http://www. biolka. /botan. html – Mushrooms, Lichens, Mosses, Horsetails, Club mosses, Angiosperms

http://www. herb. /english/index. html - botanical server of Moscow University

http://www. nature. – Rare and endangered animals of Russia

http://www. /animalia/coleoptera – Beetles and coleopterists

http://www. - the largest wildlife server

http://www. edu. /russian/misc/eco_page/bank/fio. html - Methods for studying the ecology of the city, quiz games about insects, the Red Book of the Yaroslavl region and much more.

http://www. kozlenkoa. / - Soros teacher Alexander G. KOZLENKO on the use of a computer in biology lessons "This site is for teachers and for teachers, those who study themselves and teach others; internally and remotely, biology, chemistry, and other subjects - using a computer and the Internet."

http:/// - The electronic version of the newspaper "Biology" and the site for teachers "I'm going to a lesson in biology" All interesting articles about daily discoveries (as well as the fate of those already made) in various fields of biology - for everyone. There is a section of preparation for the final certification and much more.

http://www. /education/i4biol/index. html - Internet for biologists. A kind of self-instruction guide for biologists on the development of the Internet.

http://coralsea. /biocenos/sea/coralreef/ - World of corals Life on the reef and much more about the structure, reproduction, distribution, significance and relationships of the inhabitants of coral reefs

http://www. /rus/academy/bio/ - Internevod - academy Classification, determinants, diversity and commercial value of plants and animals of the World Ocean

http://www. /np/library/publikacii/tokranov1/titul. htm - Amazing Creations of Nature A significant number of translated articles and messages about various outlandish inhabitants of the Earth and amazing creations of nature (based on the materials of the National Geographic magazine)

http://nrc. /est/r4/ - Biological picture of the world A brief guide to the main biological problems: the origin and development of life, the development of ecosystems, the laws of heredity, anthropology.

http://www. entomology. / - Information and search site or "almost everything" on entomology A large number of high-quality links to Russian-language sites devoted to all aspects of the life of various groups of arthropods, and most of all - insects

http://www. / - Zooclub is all about animals The most diverse illustrated information about both the life of wild animals and pets. It is possible to receive a free consultation on maintenance and veterinary medicine

http://schools. /sch758/works. htm - Biology and Ecology Thematic projects in the specified subjects, designed to be materials for direct use in lessons on specific topics

http://www. darwin. /expos/floor3/red. asp - animals listed in the Red Book

Chemistry

http://www. - Assistant, pilot in the sea of ​​chemicals and phenomena. All about the world of chemistry

http://www. chem. msu. su - Chemical information network. Chemical science and education in Russia

http://www. kozlenkoa. /protein. htm Protein classification

http://www. edu. /russian/courses/chem/ - Organic chemistry. Olympics. Dictionary. Experiences. (etc.)

Physics

http://www. phys. – open and popular education in physics at St. Petersburg State University (for schoolchildren, students, ...)

Astronomy

http://www. – Astronomical network

http://www. astroport. /index1.html - Astronomy for schoolchildren

Maths

http:/// - Mathematics, solving equations, problems, matrices, integrals and much more for students and high school students

http:/// - Books, video lectures, entertaining mathematical facts, tasks of various levels and topics, stories from the life of mathematicians - everything that will help you plunge into the amazing and fascinating world of mathematics

http://www. / - Mathematical etudes (made using modern 3D computer graphics, telling about mathematics and its applications in a fascinating and interesting way)

http://www. dondublon. /math. htm - Popular Mathematics (Perelman, Barr, etc.)

http://www. ega-math. / - Mathematics interesting for me

http://www. - Educational mathematical site for schoolchildren, students, teachers. Mathematics in applications (Problems, reference books, contests, etc.)

http://www. mat game. / - Mathematical gymnastics (interesting various tasks, puzzles, etc.)

http://www. /mathematics/ - Mathematics. Methodical and educational materials. Planimetry. Stereometry. Algebra. Functions and Graphs

http://p-science. - Didactic and methodical materials on computer science and mathematics. (there are links)

http://www. depts. /~mschool - Library of electronic teaching aids. Methodical materials on mathematics for secondary schools. Problems of Mathematical Olympiads

http://www. /cs/~vasik/cms/ - Computer methods learning mathematics

http://www. /school/vestnik/n36.htm - Extra-curricular activities in mathematics

http://www. metmath. / – Tests. Function research. Trigonometric inequalities. Graph transformations.

http://www. tambov. /vjpusk/vjp044/work/05/index. htm - Math lesson (Generalized repetition. Lesson-journey)

http://www. / - Mathematical Olympiads and Olympiad tasks. Correspondence mathematical circle

http://www. mathematics. / - Mathematics for applicants to universities. Problems offered in written mathematics exams at technical universities such as Moscow State University and Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology

http://www. /free-books/ - Freely distributed publications on mathematics and related sciences (logic, cryptography). Full texts of books provided by authors and publishers, as well as lecture notes, collections of problems, course programs, etc.

http://www. /free-books/lib. htm - Electronic library of books on mathematics. (DjVu format)

Informatics

Language Logo

http://school. ort. /library/logo/main. html - Textbook on Logo (notes of classes, assignments for consolidating the material)

http://logoworlds. / – Description of LogoWorlds

http://www. inf. /WebDesign/finf2_OLD. nsf/lookup/Logomiry - Drawings in Logo

http://center. /method/Resources/judina/03-04/logo_anim/index. html - LogoWorld Projects

http://www. /pages/kaba/multistudia/logo-examples/index. htm - LogoWorld Projects

http://www. /logo/projects/pole. html - Project Gallery

http://www. /logo/projects/gallery. html - Project Gallery

http://www. iro. :8101/resource/distant/informatics/s/Kalina/soder. html - the work "Using the object-oriented environment LOGOMIRA for the development of creative abilities" of the teacher of computer science

http://school. ort. /library/recurs/index. htm - Recursion in Logo algorithms

http://center. /method/Resources/judina/ychebnik/recl. htm - Description of the book: . Workshop on informatics in the LogoWriter environment. There are drawings

Modeling

http://www. school. ort. /library/exam_help/models. htm

http://www. infosgs. /

http://markbook. /alg/model. htm

Number systems

http://fio. /archive/group11/c4wu1/index. htm

http://works. /Tmn/r8/w01_2.htm

Computer graphics

http://shakht. /usr/sam/photoshop/default. htm - Book chapters on how to work with popular software product by Adobe - Photoshop 4.0

http:///tutorial/Svetilkin/spravochnicki/AdobePhotoshopCS8/menu. html - Illustrated Tutorial for Adobe Photoshop CS 8

http://schools. /portfolio/gal/ - Adobe Web Photo Gallery

Other

http://vio. /vio_25/resource/html/encoding/main. htm - Coding information (4 lessons)

http://www. macedu. /edu/posob/index. html - a set of manuals on computer science (IT basics, Logo, Information and information processes, Number systems, Coding); Do you have exam materials?

http://www. psbatishev. - Regional computer center. Teachers and students. Electronic textbooks, tests. Plans, programs and more. etc.)

http://www. - everything for the programmer

http://www. pedsovet. /forum/633/484/5057/1 - resources for programming and preparation for the Olympiads

http://www. g6prog. / - Analysis of Olympiad problems

http://p-science. - Didactic materials on computer science and mathematics. (there are links)

http://p-science. /didact_i. html - Didactic materials on computer science (there are materials for exams)

http://www. school. ort. /library/exam_help/exams. html - exam materials

http://www. infosgs. / - materials for the exam

http://www. – cryptography

http://www. markbook. /book/entitled. htm - Methodological guide on the IWT course for students

http://www. novgorod. /projects/Project6/index. htm - Types and Forms of Knowledge Control

http://www. phis. /informatika/ - Informatics and information technology for students and teachers according to Beshenkov

http://www. sakva. /fractals. htm - fractals

http://www. ugatu. /~trushin - Materials. Methodology, resources, tests, tasks, answers, exams.

http://www. /TOK/basic/info. htm - Workbook on the topic "Information" Grade 5

http://www. /noos/informatika/index. html - Informatics (Regulatory documents, Curricula, Educational literature, Educational software, Methodological materials, Profile education, Distance learning, Projects, competitions, olympiads, Useful materials, Unified state exam, Best certification works, From work experience)

http://www. /era/index. htm - essays on the philosophy and history of the computer

http://www. /UDP/texts/index. html - Information protection. Training course for professional use

http://conf-vrn. /method/index. htm - Materials dealing with various issues of theory and methodology of general secondary and additional professional education.

http://cccp. / - Computer kids club. The mission of the club is to help those who wish to obtain or improve their qualifications in the field of computer technology, computer design, programming and network technologies, regardless of initial training.

Web programming and the Internet

Browsers

http:///hitech/38704/ - past, present and future of browsers

http:///offline/2003/200323/27228/ - about the "browser war"

Viruses

http://www. teenadvice. org/ – Teen Advice Online (in English)

http://www. man. ac. uk/study/contedu/ – The University of Manchester Continuing Education Homepage (in English)

http://www. / - One of the best sites. (in English)

http://www. forgotten houses. freeserve. co. uk/ – Forgotten Houses home page. Unusual self-catering holiday homes, cottages, farmhouses and manors in South West Cornwall, Britai (in English)

http://www. / - Materials for students and teachers. (in English)

http://www. /english. html - Learning English on the Internet (a huge amount of resources)

http://www. /letter/letter. html - Business and personal letters in English

Tests, exams

http://www. age. /portalweb/index. jsp - USE Information Support Portal

http://www. school. /tests/ - all kinds of tests

http://www. /~mcsmall/index. htm - testing center for all subjects

http://www. /tt/demo/demo. htm - career guidance

http://www. /online – Punctuation, Russian, Biology, Chemistry

http://www. /tests/ – psychology tests

Learning Resources

http://en. / - Natural science educational portal. Contains resources and links to resources in the natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics).

http://p-science. /links. html - Internet resources

http://www. school. / - directory of educational resources

http://www. - Directory of children's resources

http://www. /text/teach/index1.html - teaching resources

Remote education

http://www. / - Internet school "Enlightenment. RU" (The Internet school gives everyone the opportunity to master the educational program of grades 10 and 11 remotely. With the help of modern technologies in the Internet school, you can get a secondary (complete) general education and a state certificate. )

http://www. / - Information about current distance Olympiads and projects (multi-subject competitions, competitions in mathematics, computer science, physics, chemistry, biology, linguistics, geology, cryptography, astronomy and space physics)

http://www. kenguru. / - International Mathematical Competition "Kangaroo - Mathematics for All"

http://www. rm. / - Competition "Russian Bear cub - linguistics for everyone"

http:/// - Center for creative initiatives Snail (competitions, olympiads, tournaments, etc.)

http://oso. / - Educational network Olympiads

http:/// - Commonwealth of Distance Educational Olympiad Projects

http://www. - Open Education

http://www. - Internet Education Federation

http://www. - Remote education

http://www. - remote heuristic olympiads

http://www. - Russian Children's Internet Festival (competitions, projects)

http://www. / - Internet University of Information Technologies! This is the first educational institution in Russia where you can get a free education on the Web.

http://www. /negotiations/index. html - The Art of Negotiation

http://cccp. /eng/main. php? page=study&page2=distance - Teaching computer technology

http://ips. / - Russian Internet School of Informatics and Programming

http:///- International Center distance learning

Information sites

http://www. /index. html is an information and educational resource, on the pages of which you can get acquainted with various materials in the field of science and culture, pedagogy and education, art and literature

http://www. / - encyclopedia of weapons

http://www. /read-ka/ - children's fairy tale magazine (very good!!!)

http://www. - Hermitage

http://www. – encyclopedia, there are interesting tests

http://www. – Virtual Museum of the Moscow Kremlin

http://www. school. – Virtual school (biology, computer science, history, biology, jokes, about parents and much more)

http://www. sci. - About everything in the world, about the Motherland, about nature, maps, for the soul, ...

http://www. solar. ee/ – children's portal Sunshine (very good)

http://www. / - Not only educational materials such as the virtual school, but also other useful materials for boys and girls. (How to properly tie a tie, how to write a good resume, etc.)

http://www. darwin. /expos/dino/ - The Age of Dinosaurs

http://www. / - How did life develop on Earth. What animals lived on our planet. How the solar system and the Earth itself formed.

http://www. zoo. / - Kharkov Zoo

http://www. darwin. / - State Darwin Museum. Exposition, exhibitions, excursions and other information

http://slavnas.ru /animals. html - Animal photos

Graduates

http://www. - Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements

For scholars

http://db. chgk. info/files/igp7.4-a. html - Questions

http://www. - Various intellectual championships ON-LINE

http://www. – game ON-LINE

http://vdi. chgk. info/ – World Intelligence Day. Question of the day. ON-LINE game

http://www. /~kvint – Vyborg Erudite Club