Legal protection of programs and data. Legal protection of computer programs and databases was introduced in full for the first time in Russian Federation Law "On legal protection programs for electronic computers and databases”, which entered into force on October 20, 1992.
The legal protection provided by this law extends to all types of computer programs (including Operating Systems and software complexes) that can be expressed in any language and in any form.
To assert its rights, the developer of a program may, starting from the first release of the program, use a copyright sign consisting of three elements:
The letters C in a circle or parentheses;
Name (name) of the right holder;
The year of the first release of the program.
Data protection.
Protection against illegal copying and use. Software protection to prevent copying distribution floppy disks may consist in applying non-standard formatting. In addition, an encoded software key may be placed on a floppy disk or CD-ROM, without which the program becomes unusable and which is lost during copying.
Hardware protection against illegal use can be implemented using a hardware key, which is usually attached to the computer's parallel port.
Computer access protection. Passwords are used to protect against unauthorized access to data stored on your computer. The computer allows access to its resources only to those users who are registered and have entered the correct password. Each user can only be allowed access to certain information resources. In this case, it is possible to register all attempts of unauthorized access.
Protection of disks, folders and files. Each disk, folder and file can be protected from unauthorized access: for example, set certain access rights (full or read only), and different for different users.
Information protection on the Internet. Servers on the Internet host various important information: Web sites, files, etc. If a computer is connected to the Internet, then in principle any user also connected to the Internet can access the information resources of this server. He is able to change or replace the Web page of the site, delete or, conversely, write a file, etc. To prevent this from happening, access to the information resources of the server (its administration) is performed using a password.
If the server has a connection to the Internet and simultaneously serves as a local network server (Intranet server), then unauthorized access from the Internet to local network. To avoid this, a software or hardware barrier is installed between the Internet and the Intranet using a firewall. The firewall monitors data transfer between networks and prevents unauthorized access.
Logical addition. Truth table.
Folders and files (file type, file name). File system. Basic file operations in the operating system
File. All programs and data are stored in the computer's non-volatile (external) memory as files. A file is a certain amount of information (program or data) that has a name and is stored in long-term (external) memory.
The file name consists of two parts separated by a dot: the actual file name and an extension that defines its type (program, data, etc.). The actual file name is given by the user, and the file type is usually set automatically by the program when it is created.
On various operating systems, there are various formats file names. In the MS-DOS operating system, the file name itself must contain no more than eight letters of the Latin alphabet and numbers, and the extension consists of three Latin letters, for example:
In the operating room Windows system the file name can have up to 255 characters, and the use of the Russian alphabet is allowed, for example:
Information units.doc
File system. On each storage medium (flexible, rigid or laser disc) can store a large number of files. The order in which files are stored on a disk is determined by the installed file system.
For disks with a small number of files (up to several dozen), it is convenient to use a single-level file system, when the directory (disc table of contents) is a linear sequence of file names.
If hundreds and thousands of files are stored on the disk, then for the convenience of searching, the files are organized into a multi-level hierarchical file system, which has a "tree" structure.
The initial, root, directory contains nested directories of the 1st level, in turn, each of them has nested directories of the 2nd level, etc. It should be noted that files can be stored in directories of all levels.
Operations on files. In the process of working on a computer, the following operations are most often performed on files: copying (a copy of the file is placed in another directory); moving (the file itself is moved to another directory); deletion (the record about the file is removed from the directory); renaming (changes the file name).
Graphical representation of the file system. The MS-DOS hierarchical file system, containing directories and files, is represented in the Windows operating system by GUI in the form of a hierarchical system of folders and documents. A folder in Windows is analogous to an MS-DOS directory.
However, the hierarchical structures of these systems are somewhat different. In a hierarchical file system MS-DOS top of the hierarchy of objects is the root directory of the disk, which can be compared with the trunk of a tree - branches (subdirectories) grow on it, and leaves (files) are located on the branches.
On Windows, at the top of the folder hierarchy is the Desktop folder (Figure 10). Next level
Represented by My Computer, Recycle Bin and network environment(if the computer is connected to a local network).
In the algebra of logic, the union of two (or more) statements using the union "or" is called the operation of logical addition or disjunction.
A compound statement formed as a result of logical addition (disjunction) is true when at least one of the simple statements included in it is true.
The operation of logical addition (disjunction) is usually denoted either by the sign "v" or the addition sign "+":
We have written the formula for the logical addition function, the arguments of which are the logical variables A and B, which take the values true (1) and false (0).
The logical addition function F can also take only two values: true (1) and false (0). The value of a logical function can be determined using the truth table of this function, which shows what values the logical function takes for all possible sets of its arguments (Table 3).
According to the truth table, it is easy to determine the truth of a compound statement formed using the logical addition operation. Consider, for example, the compound statement "2 x 2 = 4 Or 3 x 3 = 10". The first simple proposition is true-* before (A = 1), and the second proposition is false (B = 0); according to the table, we determine that the logical function takes the value true (F = 1), i.e., this compound statement is true.
Legal protection of programs and data. The legal protection of computer programs and databases was first fully introduced in the Russian Federation by the Law "On the legal protection of programs for electronic computers and databases", which entered into force on October 20, 1992.
The legal protection granted by this law extends to all types of computer programs (including operating systems and software packages) that can be expressed in any language and in any form.
To assert its rights, the developer of a program may, starting from the first release of the program, use a copyright sign consisting of three elements:
The letters C in a circle or parentheses;
Name (name) of the right holder;
The year of the first release of the program.
Data protection.
Protection against illegal copying and use. Software protection to prevent copying distribution floppy disks may consist of using non-standard formatting. In addition, an encoded software key may be placed on a floppy disk or CD-ROM, without which the program becomes unusable and which is lost during copying.
Hardware protection against illegal use can be implemented using a hardware key, which is usually attached to the computer's parallel port.
Computer access protection. Passwords are used to protect against unauthorized access to data stored on your computer. The computer allows access to its resources only to those users who are registered and have entered the correct password. Each specific user may be allowed access only to certain information resources. In this case, it is possible to register all attempts of unauthorized access.
Protection of disks, folders and files. Each disk, folder and file can be protected from unauthorized access: for example, set certain access rights (full or read only), and different for different users.
Information protection on the Internet. Servers on the Internet host various important information: Web sites, files, etc. If a computer is connected to the Internet, then in principle any user also connected to the Internet can access the information resources of this server. He is able to change or replace the Web page of the site, delete or, conversely, write a file, etc. To prevent this from happening, access to the information resources of the server (its administration) is performed using a password.
If the server has an Internet connection and simultaneously serves as a local network server (Intranet server), then unauthorized access from the Internet to the local network is possible. To avoid this, a software or hardware barrier is installed between the Internet and the Intranet using a firewall. The firewall monitors data transfer between networks and prevents unauthorized access.
Licensed, shareware and free programs according to their legal status can be divided into three large groups: licensed, shareware and freely distributed programs (freeware).
Distributions of licensed programs (floppies or CD-ROMs from which programs are installed on users' computers) are distributed by developers on the basis of agreements with users on a paid basis, in other words, licensed programs are sold. In accordance with the license agreement, the developers of the program guarantee its normal functioning in a particular operating system and are responsible for it.
Some software companies offer shareware programs to users for advertising and marketing purposes. The user is provided with a version of the program with a limited validity period (after the expiration of the specified period, the program stops working if payment has not been made for it) or a version of the program with limited functionality(in case of payment, the user is informed of a code that includes all functions).
Many software and computer hardware manufacturers are interested in the wide distribution of software free of charge. To such software tools include the following: new unfinished (beta) versions of software products (this allows them to be widely tested); software products that are part of fundamentally new technologies (this allows you to conquer the market); additions to previously released programs that fix found errors or expand capabilities; outdated versions of programs; drivers for new devices or improved drivers for existing ones.
Legal protection of information. The legal protection of computer programs and databases was first fully introduced in the Russian Federation by the Law of the Russian Federation "On the legal protection of programs for electronic computers and databases", which entered into force in 1992.
To communicate its rights, the developer of a program may, starting from the first release of the program, use a copyright symbol consisting of three elements: the letter C in a circle or parentheses ©; title (name) of the right holder; year of the program's first release.
Electronic signature. In 2002, the Law of the Russian Federation "On Electronic Digital Signature" was adopted, which became the legislative basis for electronic document management in Russia. According to this law, electronic digital signature in an electronic document is recognized as legally equivalent to a signature in a paper document.
When registering a digital signature in specialized centers, the correspondent receives two keys: secret and public. The secret key is stored on a floppy disk or smart card and should be known only to the correspondent himself. public key should be available to all potential recipients of documents and is usually distributed by e-mail.
The process of electronic signing of a document consists in processing using secret key message text. Next, the encrypted message is sent by e-mail to the subscriber. To authenticate the message and electronic signature the subscriber uses the public key.
Computer access protection. Passwords are used to prevent unauthorized access to data stored on the computer. The computer allows access to its resources only to those users who are registered and have entered the correct password. Each specific user may be allowed access only to certain information resources. In this case, all unauthorized access attempts can be logged.
User settings protection is available in the Windows operating system (when the system boots, the user must enter his password), but such protection is easily overcome, since the user can refuse to enter a password. Password login can be set in the program BIOS Setup, the computer will not start loading the operating system unless the correct password is entered. It is not easy to overcome such protection, moreover, there will be serious data access problems if the user forgets this password.
Currently, to protect against unauthorized access to information, biometric authorization and user identification systems are increasingly used. The characteristics used in these systems are inalienable qualities of a person's personality and therefore cannot be lost and forged. Biometric information security systems include speech recognition systems, fingerprint identification systems, and iris identification systems.
Protection of programs from illegal copying and use. Computer pirates, illegally replicating software, devalue the work of programmers, make software development an economically unprofitable business. In addition, software pirates often offer users unfinished programs, programs with errors, or their demo versions.
For computer software to function, it must be installed (installed). Software distributed by manufacturers in the form of distribution kits on CD-ROM. Each distribution has its own serial number, which prevents illegal copying and installation of programs.
Special protections can be used to prevent illegal copying of programs and data stored on the CD-ROM. Can be placed on CD-ROM encrypted software key, which is lost during copying and without which the program cannot be installed.
Protection against illegal use of programs can be implemented using hardware key, which is usually connected to the computer's parallel port. The protected application accesses the parallel port and requests secret code; if hardware key is not connected to the computer, then the protected application determines the situation of protection violation and stops its execution.
Disk data protection. Every drive, folder and file local computer, as well as a computer connected to the local network, can be protected from unauthorized access. Certain access rights can be set for them (full, read only, by password), and the rights can be different for different users.
To ensure greater reliability of data storage, hard drives are used RAID arrays(Redantant Arrays of Independent Disks - a redundant array of independent disks). Several hard drives are connected to a special RAID controller, which treats them as a single logical storage medium. When information is written, it is duplicated and stored on several disks at the same time, so if one of the disks fails, data is not lost.
Internet information protection. If a computer is connected to the Internet, then in principle any user also connected to the Internet can access the information resources of this computer. If the server has an Internet connection and simultaneously serves as a local network server (Intranet server), then unauthorized access from the Internet to the local network is possible.
Mechanisms for penetration from the Internet to the local computer and to the local network may be different: Web pages loaded into the browser may contain active ActiveX controls or Java applets that can perform destructive actions on the local computer; some Web servers host text messages on the local computer. cookies, using which you can get confidential information about the user of the local computer; by using special utilities you can access disks and files on the local computer, etc.
To prevent this from happening, a software or hardware barrier is installed between the Internet and the Intranet using firewall(firewall- firewall). The firewall monitors the transfer of data between networks, monitors current connections, detects suspicious activity and thereby prevents unauthorized access from the Internet to the local network.
To begin with, we will immediately warn readers: the protection of the rights of the creators of computer programs and databases is carried out on the basis of regulations that differ significantly from those that govern the protection of trademarks. Moreover, these are two completely different objects of protection.
The rights of the creators of computer programs and databases are protected by two laws: Law of the Russian Federation of September 23, 1992 No. 3523-1 “On the legal protection of programs for electronic computers and databases” and Law of the Russian Federation of July 9, 1993 No. 5351-1 “On copyright and related rights". In many fundamental points, both of these normative acts duplicate each other, therefore, we will focus on the Law "On the Legal Protection of Computer Programs and Databases" as a special normative act, although we emphasize: to protect your rights, you can and should use both of the aforementioned Law.
After all, everyone has the right
What exactly are the rights of the creators of programs and databases that can receive legal protection and protection in the Russian Federation?
Legal protection extends to all types of computer programs (including operating systems and software packages) that can be formulated in any language and in any form, including source text and object code, as well as databases that are the result of creative work on the selection and organization of data.
It should be borne in mind that the ideas and principles underlying the computer program, database or any of their elements, including the ideas and principles of interface and algorithm organization, as well as programming languages, are not subject to legal protection. So with all the desire to register any stunning idea that, in your opinion, is capable of revolutionizing the computer world, you won't succeed. But if you manage to put this or that idea into practice, for the first time creating a real software- then it's a completely different matter.
Copyright in a computer program or database arises by virtue of the very fact of their creation (which in no way refers to trademarks). No deposit, registration or other formalities are required for the recognition and exercise of copyright for the said objects of intellectual activity. To notify about his rights, the author can (from our point of view, he must, so that it would not be offensive later) from the first release to the public of the created program or database, use the copyright protection sign, which consists of three elements:
- the letters "C" (from the word copyright) in a circle or in parentheses;
- title (name) of the right holder;
- the year of the first release of a computer program or database to the public.
Nevertheless, the author is granted the right to register the intellectual product created by him. To do this, the program developer must personally or through an authorized representative contact Russian agency on the legal protection of computer programs, databases and topologies of integrated circuits. This process takes very little time, effort and nerves (we confirm this based on our own experience). By the way, in material terms, the procedure is also not burdensome. But in the future, a certificate issued by an agency can provide its owner with an invaluable service. For example, when for the protection of your legally protected rights and interests you will have to go to court, where you will need evidence of your innocence.
Briefly about the rights that belong to the authors of computer programs and databases. Such rights fall into two categories: moral rights and property rights. The first category of rights is inalienable (that is, these rights cannot be transferred even under a contract) and includes: the right of authorship - the right to be considered the author of a program or database, the right to a name - the right to determine the form of indicating the author's name in a program or database (under one's own name, pseudonym or anonymous) and, finally, the right to inviolability (integrity) - the right to protect the program or database itself and its name from any kind of distortion or other encroachment that could damage the honor and dignity of the author.
The second category of rights is property rights; they are transferred on the basis of so-called license agreements. The owner of property rights has the exclusive right to carry out (or authorize) the following actions: release of a program or database; reproduction of the program or database in any form and by any means; distribution of the program or database; modifying them, including by translating from one language to another.
There is a certain nuance that is not always taken into account by programmers and their employers: if you created a program or database in the course of performing your official duties or on the instructions of the employer, then the property rights to such an intellectual product belong to the employer, unless, of course, otherwise specified in the contract with the employer . Please note: it is property rights, personal non-property rights (authorship, name, inviolability), the content of which is stated above, that no one can take away from the author. And if, unknowingly or for any other reason, the author suddenly took and transferred to his employer all the rights to the program or database he created, and then the author became excruciatingly sick for his reckless act, then the contract regarding the transfer of personal non-property rights is easily recognized as invalid in a court.
Actions in case of violation of your rights
What actions should be taken by a resolute and uncompromising author who has discovered that his brainchild, the creation of which many sleepless nights were spent, is cheekily sold in a nearby stall or store, and the creator of a masterpiece (or not a masterpiece - it doesn’t matter) is not paid anything, yes And in general - they didn’t even ask permission? Your actions should be adequate to the offense inflicted. There are several response options (degrees of adequacy are set out in ascending order):
- Submit a claim to persons who violate your copyrights, and demand either to stop the violation, or to formalize your relationship in the manner prescribed by law. In other words, you can demand that your “interest” be taken into account. The answer in most cases is predictable. Which - we hope you have already guessed, otherwise you would have to be denied the ability to write computer programs.
- Contact the Department of Economic Crime, on the territory of which you found "dumb" merchants. Further, the valiant policemen must figure everything out themselves and, if necessary, initiate a criminal case. Fortunately, there are a lot of articles in store for such a case in the criminal code. True, in this case, your satisfaction will be more moral - you are unlikely to return the money.
- Write an application to the arbitration court (this action will require the help of a qualified lawyer - you can’t do it yourself, that’s for sure). In this case, you have a very real chance to receive from 5,000 to 50,000 minimum wages as compensation. Now the minimum wage for such purposes is set at 100 rubles. If you believe that the proceeds from the sale of your intellectual property are much higher than the specified amount of compensation, you can claim damages, which includes the amount of proceeds wrongfully received by the infringer from the sale of your intellectual property. But once again we emphasize that conducting cases in court is a long and tedious process, requiring special training and special knowledge.
ComputerPress 5 "2001
All topics in this section:
SPbSPU publishing house
UDC 681.3 (075) Recommended for publication by the Scientific and Methodological Council of the Pskov State Polytechnic Institute Reviewers: - Il
Fundamentals of computer science
1. Information and information processes Basic concepts: information, information processes, information society, and
Information Technology
7. Processing technologies text information Basic concepts: text editor and processor, Format text file, T
The concept of information. Information and information processes
The concept of information is widely used in everyday life of a modern person, so everyone has an intuitive idea of what it is. word information
Information Properties
There are a number of requirements for information, i.e. any information must be certain properties: § Completeness or quality of information,
Data processing methods
In order to make any decision on the basis of the received data, that is, the registered information, it is necessary to
Data Structures
Work with big sets data is easier to automate when the data is ordered, that is, it forms a given structure. There are three main types of structures: linear
Information processes
Definition. The information process is the process of perception, accumulation, storage, processing and transmission of information. § Processes of perception, storage and
Information bases of management processes
To talk about management processes, it is necessary to understand what a management system is. Definition. A system is an ordered collection of heterogeneous elements
Information activity of a person. Key Features of the Information Society
The development of science and education has led to a rapid increase in the volume of information and human knowledge. If at the beginning of the last century the total amount of human knowledge doubled approximately every fifty years,
Language as a way of presenting information. Amount of information
Recall one of the definitions of the concept of "Information". Definition. Information is the content of a message, signal, memory, etc. Note.
Probabilistic approach to determining the amount of information. The concept of entropy
If you pay attention to spoken languages, such as Russian, you can draw interesting conclusions. To simplify theoretical research in computer science, it is commonly believed that the Russian alphabet consists of
Analog (continuous) and discrete representation forms
Information is a very capacious concept that includes the whole world: the whole variety of things and phenomena, the whole history, all the volumes of scientific research, the works of poets and prose writers. And all this
Conclusion: Any continuous (analogue) value can be represented in discrete form. And the mechanism of such a transformation is obvious.
Definition. The process of converting a continuous (analog) quantity into a discrete form is called analog-to-discrete conversion. Note. Ascension
Decimal and binary representations
As already noted, discreteness is the case when an object or phenomenon has a finite (countable) number of varieties. To highlight specific
Exponential forms of information representation
To represent very small or very large numbers, their standard positional representation becomes unreadable and difficult to use for performing computational operations on such numbers.
Information encoding. binary coding. Units for measuring the amount of information
To automate the work with information related to different types, it is very important to unify the presentation form, i.e. you need to convert character, text and graphic information so about
Number systems
Definition. The number system is a set of symbols (digits) and the rules for using them to represent numbers. There are two types of number systems: §
Number systems used in a computer
The positional principle is also used when writing binary numbers. In this case, the coefficients at the powers of the number 2 will be the binary digits 0 and 1. The number 5279 in the binary number system
Converting numbers from a decimal number system to a number system with an arbitrary base
To convert a number to decimal system calculus, we write it as a polynomial As = anSn+ an-1
Converting numbers from binary to octal, hexadecimal and vice versa
These actions are carried out according to simplified rules, taking into account the fact that the bases of these number systems are multiples of an integer power of 2, i.e. 8 \u003d 23, and 16 \u003d 24. This means that when pre
A Max(N)=2N–1
§ Signed Integers - Adding negative values introduces some new properties. Exactly half of all 2N numbers are now
A=(± M) 2 ±P, and ½ ≤ M<1.
Example: -310 = -0.11 210 where M = 0.11 and P = 10
binary addition
Binary addition is similar to decimal addition. In both cases, operations begin by processing the least significant digits located in the rightmost position. If the result of addition is
binary subtraction
Binary subtraction is similar to decimal subtraction. As in the case of addition, the difference between subtraction in binary and decimal form is only in the features of bitwise operations. Calc
binary multiplication
Binary and decimal multiplication, just like binary and decimal addition or subtraction, are similar in many ways. Multiplication is a quick way to add multiple identical numbers. Multiplication performs
binary division
Division is the inverse of multiplication. In other words, when dividing, the subtraction operation is repeated until the minuend becomes less than the subtrahend. The number of repetitions shows how
Binary subtraction using two's complement codes
When implementing binary arithmetic in modern computer processor elements, it must be taken into account that the capabilities of hardware "binary electronics" do not allow direct implementation of operations.
Boolean expressions
Using the basic set of Boolean operations, you can build more complex logical statements. Example: Let's build a logical expression from simple logical operators
Logic element OR-NOT
The logical element OR-NOT implements a complex two-stage logical operation for two signals and is indicated on the diagram by the following
Construction of adders on logical elements
The presence of logical elements that implement logical operations makes it possible to implement the simplest operations of binary arithmetic, namely the operations of addition and subtraction (through addition using
Computer architecture
Definition. Computer) (from the English computer-computer) is a programmable electronic device capable of processing data
Basic hardware configuration of a personal computer (PC)
Consider the device of a computer using the example of the most common computer system - a personal computer. Definition. A personal computer (PC) is called a
System unit
The main hardware component of a computer is the system or motherboard (MotherBoard) board. An exchange bus is implemented on the system board
PC microprocessors
Definition. The central processing unit (CPU, from the English Central Processing Unit) is the main working component of a computer that performs arithmetic and logical
RAM
Definition. RAM (RAM-random access memory, from the English. RAM-Random Access Memory-memory with
Magnetic drives
In magnetic storage devices, the principle of recording information is based on the phenomenon of magnetization of ferromagnets by a magnetic field, the storage of information is associated with the long-term preservation of this magnetic field.
Optical drives
The optical principle of recording and reading information is based on changing the angle of reflection of the laser beam from the surface of the optical disk (therefore, the optical
Keyboard
Definition. The keyboard is a device for entering information into a computer and supplying control signals. Contains the standard set of typewriter keys and some additional
Manipulators
To enter graphic information and to work with the graphical interface of programs, coordinate input devices are used: manipulators (mouse, trackball, etc.), joysticks, sen
Audio adapter
Definition. An audio adapter (Sound Blaster or sound card) is a special electronic card that allows you to record sound, play it back and create
Monitor
Definition. A monitor is a universal information output device connected to a video card (video adapter). Video card directly control
Printer
The printer is designed to output to paper (create a "hard copy") of numerical, textual and graphic information. According to pr
Application software
Application software is designed to develop and perform specific tasks (applications) of the user. The application software runs
File system and file structure
All programs and data are stored on devices external memory computer as files. Definition. File (file - folder) - this is it
Modeling as a method of knowledge
In his activity, artistic, scientific, practical, a person often creates a kind of substitute for the system, process or phenomenon with which he has to deal. The purpose of such a replacement is
The concept of information modeling technology
The rapid development of computer technology, the expansion of the capabilities of computer technology, the emergence of high-speed computing systems, new programming languages with advanced computing
Algorithm. Formal execution of algorithms
Any task is characterized by known quantities (initial data) and the relationships between them, and quantities or relationships whose values are unknown and must be determined.
Properties of algorithms
All algorithms have a number of properties. Here are the main properties of algorithms): § The mass nature of the algorithm determines the possibility
Ways to write an algorithm
There are three main ways of writing or presenting an algorithm: Verbal description, Description in an algorithmic language, Structural diagram (graphical diagram)
Algorithm 2
alg beginning if the root of the word begins with a voiced consonant I then write “з” at the end of the prefix I otherwise write at the end of the prefix
Basic algorithmic constructions. Detailing of algorithms
Algorithmic constructions can be divided into three main types: linear, branching, and cyclic. § The simplest is the linear a
Methods for developing algorithms
There are two main methods for developing algorithms - the method of sequential detailing and the assembly method, § The method of sequential detailing
Program creation tools
The source program is plain text, so text editors are used to write it. To get a working program, you need this text or automatically
Basic elements of algorithmic programming languages
Any programming language is characterized by a certain set of constructive elements. Such basic elements, in particular, include: Alphabet and function words, Program structure,
Basic data types
Data can be simple or complex. Data types are divided into simple and structured or structures
subroutines
If a group of the same actions is repeated in different places of the program, then it is advisable to separate them into a subprogram. Definition. A subroutine is a part of a program
Programming technologies
Definition. Programming technology is a system of methods, methods and techniques for developing and debugging a program. At present, the following technologies are widely used
Allowance for university applicants
Under the general editorship of Ph.D., Associate Professor V.S. Belova Technical editor V.S. Belov Computer layout: team of authors