Like any technical device, a computer exchanges information with a person through a set of certain rules that are mandatory for both the machine and the person. These rules are called interfaces in computer literature. The interface should be clear and incomprehensible, friendly and not. Many adjectives go with it. But in one he is constant: he is, and you can’t get away from him anywhere.
Interface- these are the rules for the interaction of the operating system with users, as well as neighboring levels in the computer network. The technology of communication between a person and a computer depends on the interface.
Interface is, first of all, a set of rules. Like any rules, they can be generalized, collected into a "code", grouped according to a common feature. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, we have come to the concept of "interface type" as a combination of similar ways of interaction between humans and computers. We can propose the following schematic classification of various interfaces for communication between a person and a computer (Fig. 1.).
Packet technology. Historically, this type of technology appeared first. It already existed on the relay machines of Sues and Zuse (Germany, 1937). Its idea is simple: a sequence of characters is supplied to the computer input, in which, according to certain rules, the sequence of programs launched for execution is indicated. After the execution of the next program, the next one is launched, and so on. The machine, according to certain rules, finds commands and data for itself. This sequence can be, for example, a punched tape, a stack of punched cards, a sequence of pressing the keys of an electric typewriter (such as CONSUL). The machine also issues its messages on a perforator, an alphanumeric printer (ATsPU), a typewriter tape.
Such a machine is a "black box" (more precisely, a "white cabinet"), into which information is constantly fed and which also constantly "informs" the world about its state. A person here has little influence on the operation of the machine - he can only suspend the operation of the machine, change the program and start the computer again. Subsequently, when the machines became more powerful and could serve several users at once, the eternal expectation of users like: "I sent data to the machine. I'm waiting for it to answer. And will it answer at all?" - it became, to put it mildly, necessary to eat. In addition, computer centers, following newspapers, have become the second largest "producer" of waste paper. For this reason, with the advent of alphanumeric displays, an era of truly user-friendly technology began - command line.
command interface.
The command interface is usually called so because in this type of interface a person gives "commands" to the computer, and the computer executes them and gives the result to the person. The command interface is implemented as batch technology and command line technology.
With this technology, the keyboard serves as the only way to enter information from a person to a computer, and the computer outputs information to a person using an alphanumeric display (monitor). This combination (monitor + keyboard) became known as a terminal, or console.
Commands are typed on the command line. The command line is a prompt symbol and a blinking rectangle - the cursor.
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When a key is pressed, characters appear at the cursor position, and the cursor itself moves to the right. The command is ended by pressing the Enter (or Return.) key. After that, the transition to the beginning of the next line is performed. It is from this position that the computer displays the results of its work on the monitor. Then the process is repeated.
Command line technology already worked on monochrome alphanumeric displays. Since only letters, numbers and punctuation marks were allowed to be entered, specifications displays were not significant. A television receiver and even an oscilloscope tube could be used as a monitor.
Both of these technologies are implemented in the form of a command interface - the machine is fed into the input of the command, and it, as it were, "responds" to them.
The predominant type of files when working with the command interface are text files- they and only they could be created using the keyboard. The most widespread use of the command line interface is the emergence of the UNIX operating system and the appearance of the first eight-bit personal computers with the multiplatform operating system CP/M.
WIMP interface(Window - window, Image - image, Menu - menu, Pointer - pointer). characteristic feature This type of interface is that the dialogue with the user is conducted not with the help of commands, but with the help of graphic images - menus, windows, and other elements. Although machine commands are given in this interface, this is done "directly", through graphic images. The idea of a graphical interface originated in the mid-70s, when the concept of a visual interface was developed at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). The prerequisite for the graphical interface was to reduce the computer's response time to a command, increase the volume random access memory, as well as the development of the technical base of computers. The hardware basis of the concept, of course, was the appearance of alphanumeric displays on computers, and these displays already had such effects as "flickering" of characters, color inversion (reversing the style of white characters on a black background, that is, black characters on a white background ), underlining characters. These effects did not extend to the entire screen, but only to one or more characters. The next step was the creation of a color display that allows, along with these effects, symbols in 16 colors on a background with a palette (that is, a color set) of 8 colors. After the advent of graphic displays, with the ability to output any graphic images in the form of a multitude of dots on the screen of various colors, there are no limits to the imagination in using the screen! PARC's first GUI system, the 8010 Star Information System, thus appeared four months before the first IBM computer was released in 1981. Initially visual interface used only in programs. Gradually, he began to move to the operating systems used first on Atari and Apple Macintosh computers, and then on IBM compatible computers.
From an earlier time, and influenced also by these concepts, there has been a process of unification in the use of the keyboard and mouse by application programs. The merging of these two trends led to the creation of that user interface, with the help of which minimal cost time and money for retraining of personnel, you can work with any software product. The description of this interface, common to all applications and operating systems, is the subject of this part.
The graphical user interface during its development has gone through two stages and is implemented at two levels of technology: simple GUI and "pure" WIMP - interface.
At the first stage, the graphical interface was very similar to command line technology. The differences from the command line technology were as follows:
Ú When displaying characters, it was allowed to highlight some of the characters with color, inverted image, underline and blinking. Thanks to this, the expressiveness of the image has increased.
Ú Given the dependence on a specific implementation of the graphical interface, the cursor can be represented not only by a flickering rectangle, but also by some area covering several characters and even part of the screen. This selected area differs from other, unselected parts (usually in color).
Ú Pressing the Enter key does not always execute the command and move to the next line. The response to pressing any key depends largely on which part of the screen the cursor was on.
Ú In addition to the Enter key, there is an increasing use of "gray" cursor keys on the keyboard (see the keyboard section in issue 3 of this series.)
Ú Already in this edition of the graphical interface, manipulators began to be used (such as a mouse, trackball, etc. - see Figure A.4.) Οʜᴎ allowed you to quickly select the desired part of the screen and move the cursor.
Summarizing, the following can be distinctive features this interface:
Ú Highlight areas of the screen.
Ú Redefining keyboard keys based on context.
Ú Using manipulators and gray keyboard keys to control the cursor.
Ú Extensive use of color monitors.
The appearance of this type of interface coincides with the widespread use of the MS-DOS operating system. It was she who introduced this interface to the masses, thanks to which the 80s were marked by the improvement of this type of interface, the improvement of character display characteristics and other monitor parameters.
A typical example of using this kind of interface is the Nortron Commander file shell and the Multi-Edit text editor. BUT text editors Lexicon, ChiWriter and word processor Microsoft Word for Dos are examples of how this interface has outdone itself.
The second stage in the development of the graphical interface was the "pure" WIMP interface. This subspecies of the interface is characterized by the following features:
Ú All work with programs, files and documents takes place in windows - certain parts of the screen outlined by a frame.
Ú All programs, files, documents, devices and other objects are represented as icons - icons. When opened, the icons turn into windows.
Ú All actions with objects are implemented using the menu. Although the menu appeared at the first stage of the development of the graphical interface, it did not have a dominant meaning in it, but served only as an addition to the command line. In a pure WIMP interface, the menu becomes the main control element.
Ú Extensive use of manipulators to point to objects. The manipulator ceases to be just a toy - an addition to the keyboard, but becomes the main control element. With the help of the manipulator, they point to any area of the screen, windows or icons, select it, and only then, through the menu or using other technologies, they control them.
It should be noted that WIMP requires for its implementation a color bitmap display with high resolution and manipulator.
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Also, programs focused on this type of interface impose increased requirements on computer performance, the amount of memory, bandwidth tires, etc. At the same time, this type of interface is the easiest to learn and intuitive. For this reason, the WIMP interface has now become the de facto standard.
A prime example of programs with a graphical interface is the operating system. Microsoft system Windows.
SILK- interface (Speech - speech, Image - image, Language - language, Knowlege - knowledge). This type of interface is closest to the usual, human form of communication. Within the framework of this interface, there is a normal "conversation" between a person and a computer. At the same time, the computer finds commands for itself by analyzing human speech and finding key phrases in it. It also converts the result of command execution into a human-readable form. This type of interface is the most demanding on the hardware resources of a computer, and therefore it is used mainly for military purposes.
Since the mid-90s, after the advent of inexpensive sound cards and the widespread use of speech recognition technologies, the so-called "speech technology" SILK - interface appeared. With this technology, commands are given by voice by pronouncing special reserved words- commands.
Words should be pronounced clearly, at the same pace. There is a pause between words. Due to the underdevelopment of the speech recognition algorithm, such systems require individual presetting for each specific user.
The "speech" technology is the simplest implementation of the SILK interface.
Biometric technology ("Mimic Interface".)
This technology originated in the late 1990s and is still being developed at the time of this writing. To control the computer, a person's facial expression, the direction of his gaze, the size of the pupil, and other signs are used. To identify the user, the pattern of the iris of his eyes, fingerprints and other unique information is used. Images are read from a digital video camera, and then using special programs pattern recognition commands are extracted from this image. This technology is likely to take its place in software products and applications where it is important to accurately identify a computer user.
A computer communicates with a person through a set of specific rules that are binding on both the machine and the person. These rules are called interface. The interface can be clear and incomprehensible, friendly or not. Modern types of interfaces are:
1.Command interface- the user gives commands to the computer, which executes them and gives the result to the user. The command interface is implemented as batch technology and command line technology.
2.WIMP-interface (WIMP from: Window- window; Image- image; Menu– menu; Pointer- pointer) - the user's dialogue with the computer is carried out using graphic images: menus, windows and other elements. The interface is implemented on two levels of technologies: a simple graphical interface and a WIMP interface.
3.SILK interface (SILK from: Speech- speech; Image- image; language- language; Knowlege- knowledge) - a conversation between a user and a computer. The interface is closest to the usual, human form of communication. At the same time, the computer determines commands by analyzing human speech and finding key phrases in it. The computer converts the result of the execution of commands into a form understandable to a person. This type of interface is the most demanding on the hardware resources of a computer, so it is used mainly for military purposes.
The main technologies for implementing interfaces are the following technologies (Fig. 1.3.):
1.Batch technology. Historically, the technology appeared first and already existed on the relay machines of Sues and Zuse (Germany, 1937). A sequence of characters was fed to the input of the computer, in which, according to certain rules, the sequence of programs launched for execution was indicated. After the execution of the next program, the next program was launched, and so on. The machine, according to certain rules, found commands and data. For example, such a sequence was: punched tape, a stack of punched cards, a sequence of pressing the keys of an electric typewriter (such as CONSUL). The machine issued its messages on a puncher, an alphanumeric printing device ( ACPA), typewriter tape. Such a machine was a cabinet in which information was constantly fed, and which constantly informed about its condition. The user had little influence on the operation of the machine. He could only suspend the operation of the machine, change the program and restart the computer.
2.Command line technology. User information for the computer is transmitted through the keyboard. The computer displays information on an alphanumeric display (monitor). The combination "monitor + keyboard" was called terminal or console. Teams are recruited at command line, which is an invitation symbol and a blinking rectangle - cursor. When a key is pressed, characters appear at the cursor position and the cursor moves to the right, an incorrectly typed character is erased by pressing the key Delete (del). The command ends with a keystroke Enter (return.), after which the transition to the beginning of the next line is carried out, in the position of which the computer displays the results of its work on the monitor. Then the process is repeated. Command line technology already worked on monochrome alphanumeric displays.
Since only letters, numbers and punctuation marks were allowed to be entered, the technical characteristics of the display were not significant. A television receiver or an oscilloscope tube could be used as a monitor. The predominant type of files when working with the command interface were text files that could be created using the keyboard. At the time of the most widespread use of the command line interface, the appearance of the operating system UNIX and the advent of the first eight-bit personal computers with a multi-platform operating system CP/M.
3.GUI Technology. The idea of a graphical interface arose in the mid-70s, when a research center Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) the concept of the visual interface was developed. The prerequisite for the graphical interface was to reduce the computer's reaction time to a command, increase the amount of RAM, and develop the technical base of computers. The hardware basis of the concept was the appearance of alphanumeric displays, which began to support new effects: flickering of characters, color inversion (changing the style of white characters on a black background with black characters on a white background), underlining characters. The effects did not spread to the entire screen, but only to one or more characters. The next step was the creation of a color display that allows, along with these effects, symbols in 16 colors on a background with a palette (that is, a color set) of 8 colors.
The first system with a graphical interface 8010 Star Information System groups PARC appeared at the beginning of 1981. Initially, the interface was used only in programs. Gradually, he began to move to the operating systems used first on computers. Atari and Apple Macintosh, then on IBM-compatible computers. Under the influence of new concepts, a process was underway to unify the use of the keyboard and mouse by application programs. The graphical user interface during its development has gone through two stages from 1974 to the present.
Simple GUI. At the first stage, the graphical interface was very similar to command line technology, with the following differences:
When displaying characters, it was allowed to highlight some of the characters with color, inverted image, underline and flicker, which increased the expressiveness of the image;
Depending on the specific implementation of the GUI, the cursor could be represented by a flickering rectangle or some area spanning multiple characters that was different from other unselected parts;
Keystroke Enter did not always lead to the execution of the command and the transition to the next line, since the reaction to pressing any key largely depended on which part of the screen the cursor was in;
Except key Enter on the keyboard, cursor keys and manipulators (mouse, trackball, etc., Fig. 1.4.) began to be used, which made it possible to quickly select the desired part of the screen and move the cursor.
Distinctive features of the interface: selection of screen areas; redefining keyboard keys depending on the context; use of manipulators and cursor keys; widespread use of color monitors. The appearance of the interface coincides with the widespread adoption of the operating system MS-DOS, which introduced this interface and improved character display performance and other monitor settings. Interface Usage Examples: File Shell Nortron Commander, text editor Multi Edit, editors: Lexicon and ChiWriter, word processor Microsoft Word for Dos.
WIMP interface became the second stage in the development of the graphical interface, its characteristic features:
Working with programs, files and documents takes place in windows- parts of the screen defined by the outlined frame;
Programs, files, documents, devices, and other objects are represented as icons − icons, which turn into windows when opened;
Actions with objects are carried out using the menu, which has become the main control element;
One of the main controls has become a manipulator, which is used to point to an area of the screen, windows or icons, select it and use it to menu or using other technologies to manage them.
For implementation WIMP-interface requires: a high-resolution color raster display, a manipulator and programs oriented to this type of interface, which place high demands on computer performance, its memory size, bus bandwidth, etc. Currently WIMP-interface is the standard.
4.Speech technology. Appeared in the mid-90s after the appearance of inexpensive sound cards. According to this technology, commands are given by voice by pronouncing special reserved words - commands. The main commands are:
"Rest" - turn off the speech interface;
"Open" - switching to the mode of calling a particular program, the name of the program is called in the next word;
“I will dictate” - switching from command mode to voice typing mode;
"Command mode" - return to the mode of giving commands by voice, etc.
Words should be pronounced clearly, at the same pace. There is a pause between words. Due to the underdevelopment of the speech recognition algorithm, such systems require individual pre-configuration for each specific user. Speech technology is the simplest implementation SILK- interface.
5.biometric technology(mimic interface.). The technology emerged in the late 1990s. To control the computer, a person's facial expression, the direction of his gaze, the size of the pupil, and other signs are used. To identify the user, the pattern of the iris of his eyes, fingerprints and other unique information is used. Images are read from a digital video camera, and then commands are extracted from this image using special image recognition programs. This technology is used in software products and applications to identify a computer user.
6.Semantic interface technology(public interface). The technology emerged in the late 70s of the XX century with the development of artificial intelligence and is based on semantic networks. This type interface includes: command line interface, graphical interface, speech interface and mimic interface. Its main distinguishing feature is the absence of commands when communicating with a computer. The request is formed in natural language in the form of associated text and images. At its core, the interface is a simulation of human interaction with a computer.
"Transmission mechanism" - The result of the lesson. Technology 3 class. Training in the design of various technical models with a drive mechanism. Cross gear - when the wheels are spinning in different directions. Types of gears: 1 - belt; 2 - chain; 3 - gear. Products with gear: conveyor, crane, mill. The main part of the mill design is the transmission mechanism.
"Computer interfaces" - User interface. Software. Service programs. Personal computer as a system. provided by the operating system of the computer. Specify inputs and outputs. hardware interface. Hardware-software interface. Operating system. Text files. System programs. Hardware-software interface - the interaction of computer hardware and software.
"Technologies in the classroom" - Forms of organization can be different: lesson, group, individual, pair. Active and interactive methods are used by me from grades 5 to 11. Types of technologies: Technology of student-centered learning. Developmental learning technology. Technology of student-centered learning Project-research technology.
"Educational technologies at school" - Laboratory of unsolved problems. Methodological support creative projects OU and teachers. Game technologies. Growth in the indicator of ICT use in the educational process. Dissemination of advanced pedagogical experience. Reducing the number of repeaters. The growth of the skills of teachers, the impact on the quality of the lesson.
"Technology 6 - 7 - 8 class" - How is electrical energy measured? What measurement determines the size of the shoulder product? What, according to popular ideas, meant the beginning of all life? Which part drives all the working parts of the sewing machine? Raw material for making a carriage for Cinderella. What is the function of the grooves on the needle blade?
"Sections of technology" - And we have from brilliant beads - Unusual beauty. Subject - Technology. Patchwork has long been known to many nations. National holidays and rituals, national clothes. They talk about the traditions of different peoples, national holidays and rituals. After baking donuts, cool slightly, rub with crushed garlic.
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1. The concept of the user interface
2. Types of interfaces
2.1 Command interface
2.2 GUI
2.2.1 Simple GUI
2.2.2 WIMP interface
2.3 Speech technology
2.4 Biometric technology
2.5 Semantic (public) interface
2.6 Interface types
3. Information technology
3.1 The concept of information technology
3.2 Stages of information technology development
4. Types of information technology
4.1 Information technology data processing
4.2 Management information technology
5. The role and importance of information technology
6. Components of information technology
7. Modern information technologies and their types
7.1 Decision support information technology
7.2 Information technology expert systems
8. Obsolescence of information technology
9. Methodology for the use of information technology
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
As you know, the process of penetration information technologies in almost all spheres of human activity continues to develop and deepen. In addition to the already familiar and widespread personal computers, total number which has reached many hundreds of millions, there are more and more built-in computing facilities. There are more and more users of all this diverse computer technology, and the development of two seemingly opposite trends is observed. On the one hand, information technologies are becoming more and more complicated, and for their application, and even more so for further development, it is required to have very deep knowledge. On the other hand, user interaction interfaces with computers are simplified. Computers and information systems are becoming more friendly and understandable even for a person who is not a specialist in the field of computer science and computer technology. This became possible primarily because users and their programs interact with computers through special (system) software - through the operating system. The operating system provides interfaces to both running applications and users.
user interface semantic biometric
1. User interface concept
Interface - a set of technical, software and methodological (protocols, rules, agreements) means of interface in the computing system of users with devices and programs, as well as devices with other devices and programs.
Interface - in the broad sense of the word, it is a way (standard) of interaction between objects. The interface in the technical sense of the word defines the parameters, procedures and characteristics of the interaction of objects. Distinguish:
User interface - a set of methods of interaction between a computer program and the user of this program.
Programming interface - a set of methods for interaction between programs.
A physical interface is a way for physical devices to interact. Most often we are talking about computer ports.
The user interface is a combination of software and hardware that provides user interaction with a computer. Dialogues form the basis of such interaction. In this case, a dialogue is understood as a regulated exchange of information between a person and a computer, carried out in real time and aimed at jointly solving a specific problem. Each dialog consists of separate input/output processes that physically provide communication between the user and the computer. The exchange of information is carried out by the transmission of a message.
Figure 1. User interaction with the computer
Basically, the user generates messages of the following types:
information request
help request
operation or function request
entering or changing information
In response, the user receives hints or help; informational messages requiring a response; orders requiring action; error messages and other information.
The user interface of the computer application includes:
means of displaying information, displayed information, formats and codes;
command modes, language "user - interface";
dialogues, interaction and transactions between the user and the computer, user feedback;
decision support in a specific subject area;
how to use the program and documentation for it.
The user interface (UI) is often understood only as appearance programs. However, in reality, the user perceives through it the entire program as a whole, which means that such an understanding is too narrow. In fact, the UI combines all the elements and components of the program that are capable of influencing the user's interaction with the software (SW).
It's not just the screen the user sees. These elements include:
a set of user tasks that he solves with the help of the system;
the metaphor used by the system (for example, the desktop in MS Windows®);
system controls;
navigation between system blocks;
visual (and not only) design of program screens;
means of displaying information, displayed information and formats;
data entry devices and technologies;
dialogues, interactions and transactions between the user and the computer;
user feedback;
decision support in a specific subject area;
how to use the program and documentation for it.
2. Types of interfaces
An interface is, first of all, a set of rules. Like any rules, they can be generalized, collected into a "code", grouped according to a common feature. Thus, we came to the concept of "interface type" as a combination of the similarity of the ways of interaction between humans and computers. Briefly, we can propose the following schematic classification of various interfaces for communication between a person and a computer.
Modern types of interfaces are:
1) Command interface. The command interface is so called because in this type of interface a person gives "commands" to a computer, and the computer executes them and gives the result to the person. The command interface is implemented as batch technology and command line technology.
2) WIMP - interface (Window - window, Image - image, Menu - menu, Pointer - pointer). A characteristic feature of this type of interface is that the dialogue with the user is conducted not with the help of commands, but with the help of graphic images - menus, windows, and other elements. Although commands are given to the machine in this interface, this is done "directly", through graphic images. This kind of interface is implemented on two levels of technology: a simple graphical interface and a "pure" WIMP interface.
3) SILK - interface (Speech - speech, Image - image, Language - language, Knowlege - knowledge). This type of interface is closest to the usual, human form of communication. Within the framework of this interface, there is a normal "conversation" between a person and a computer. At the same time, the computer finds commands for itself by analyzing human speech and finding key phrases in it. It also converts the result of command execution into a human-readable form. This type of interface is the most demanding on the hardware resources of a computer, and therefore it is used mainly for military purposes.
2.1 Command interface
Packet technology. Historically, this type of technology appeared first. It already existed on the relay machines of Sues and Zuse (Germany, 1937). Its idea is simple: a sequence of characters is supplied to the computer input, in which, according to certain rules, the sequence of programs launched for execution is indicated. After the execution of the next program, the next one is launched, and so on. The machine, according to certain rules, finds commands and data for itself. This sequence can be, for example, a punched tape, a stack of punched cards, a sequence of pressing the keys of an electric typewriter (of the CONSUL type). The machine also issues its messages on a perforator, an alphanumeric printer (ATsPU), a typewriter tape. Such a machine is a "black box" (more precisely, a "white cabinet"), into which information is constantly fed and which also constantly "informs" the world about its state (see Figure 1). A person here has little influence on the operation of the machine - he can only stop the machine, change the program and start the computer again. Subsequently, when the machines became more powerful and could serve several users at once, the eternal expectation of users like: "I sent data to the machine. I'm waiting for it to answer. And will it answer at all?" - became, to put it mildly, annoying. In addition, computer centers, after newspapers, have become the second largest "producer" of waste paper. Therefore, with the advent of alphanumeric displays, the era of a truly user-friendly technology, the command line, began.
Fig.2. View of the main computer of the EC series of computers
command line technology. With this technology, the keyboard serves as the only way to enter information from a person to a computer, and the computer outputs information to a person using an alphanumeric display (monitor). This combination (monitor + keyboard) became known as a terminal, or console. Commands are typed on the command line. The command line is a prompt symbol and a blinking rectangle - the cursor. When a key is pressed, characters appear at the cursor position, and the cursor itself moves to the right. This is very similar to typing commands on a typewriter. However, unlike it, the letters are displayed on the display, not on paper, and a mistyped character can be erased. The command is terminated by pressing the Enter (or Return) key. After that, the transition to the beginning of the next line is performed. It is from this position that the computer displays the results of its work on the monitor. Then the process is repeated. Command line technology already worked on monochrome alphanumeric displays. Since only letters, numbers and punctuation marks were allowed to be entered, the technical characteristics of the display were not significant. A television receiver and even an oscilloscope tube could be used as a monitor.
Both of these technologies are implemented in the form of a command interface - commands are given to the machine as input, and it, as it were, "responds" to them.
Text files became the predominant type of files when working with the command interface - they and only they could be created using the keyboard. The time of the most widespread use of the command line interface is the advent of the UNIX operating system and the appearance of the first eight-bit personal computers with the multiplatform operating system CP / M.
2.2 GUI
How and when did the GUI appear? His idea originated in the mid-70s, when the concept of a visual interface was developed at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). The prerequisite for the graphical interface was to reduce the reaction time of the computer to the command, increase the amount of RAM, as well as the development of the technical base of computers. The hardware basis of the concept, of course, was the appearance of alphanumeric displays on computers, and these displays already had such effects as "flickering" of characters, color inversion (reversing the style of white characters on a black background, that is, black characters on a white background ), underlining characters. These effects did not extend to the entire screen, but only to one or more characters. The next step was the creation of a color display that allows, along with these effects, symbols in 16 colors on a background with a palette (that is, a color set) of 8 colors. After the advent of graphic displays, with the ability to display any graphic images in the form of many dots on a screen of various colors, there were no limits to the imagination in using the screen! PARC's first GUI system, the 8010 Star Information System, thus appeared four months before the first IBM computer was released in 1981. Initially, the visual interface was used only in programs. Gradually, he began to move to the operating systems used first on Atari and Apple Macintosh computers, and then on IBM-compatible computers.
From an earlier time, and influenced also by these concepts, there has been a process of unification in the use of the keyboard and mouse by application programs. The merger of these two trends has led to the creation of the user interface, with the help of which, with minimal time and money spent on retraining staff, you can work with any software product. The description of this interface, common to all applications and operating systems, is the subject of this part.
2.2.1 Simple GUI
At the first stage, the graphical interface was very similar to command line technology. The differences from the command line technology were as follows:
1. When displaying symbols, it was allowed to highlight part of the symbols with color, inverse image, underline and blinking. Thanks to this, the expressiveness of the image has increased.
2. Depending on the specific implementation of the graphical interface, the cursor can be represented not only by a flickering rectangle, but also by some area covering several characters and even part of the screen. This selected area is different from other, unselected parts (usually by color).
3. Pressing the Enter key does not always execute the command and move to the next line. The response to pressing any key depends largely on which part of the screen the cursor was on.
4. In addition to the Enter key, the "gray" cursor keys are increasingly used on the keyboard.
5. Already in this edition of the graphical interface, manipulators (such as a mouse, trackball, etc. - see Fig. 3) began to be used. They made it possible to quickly select the desired part of the screen and move the cursor.
Fig.3. Manipulators
Summing up, the following distinctive features of this interface can be cited.
1) Selection of areas of the screen.
2) Redefining keyboard keys depending on the context.
3) Using manipulators and gray keyboard keys to control the cursor.
4) Widespread use of color monitors.
The appearance of this type of interface coincides with the widespread use of the MS-DOS operating system. It was she who introduced this interface to the masses, thanks to which the 80s were marked by the improvement of this type of interface, the improvement of character display characteristics and other monitor parameters.
A typical example of using this kind of interface is the Nortron Commander file shell (see below for file shells) and the Multi-Edit text editor. And the text editors Lexicon, ChiWriter, and the Microsoft Word for Dos word processor are examples of how this interface has outdone itself.
2.2.2 WIMP interface
The "pure" WIMP interface became the second stage in the development of the graphical interface. This subspecies of the interface is characterized by the following features.
1. All work with programs, files and documents takes place in windows - certain parts of the screen outlined by a frame.
2. All programs, files, documents, devices and other objects are represented as icons - icons. When opened, the icons turn into windows.
3. All actions with objects are carried out using the menu. Although the menu appeared at the first stage of the development of the graphical interface, it did not have a dominant meaning in it, but served only as an addition to the command line. In a pure WIMP interface, the menu becomes the main control element.
4. Widespread use of manipulators to point to objects. The manipulator ceases to be just a toy - an addition to the keyboard, but becomes the main control element. With the help of the manipulator, they POINT to any area of the screen, windows or icons, HIGHLIGHT it, and only then they control them through the menu or using other technologies.
It should be noted that WIMP requires a high-resolution color raster display and a manipulator for its implementation. Also, programs oriented to this type of interface impose increased requirements on computer performance, memory size, bus bandwidth, etc. However, this type of interface is the easiest to learn and most intuitive. Therefore, now WIMP - the interface has become the de facto standard.
A striking example of programs with a graphical interface is the Microsoft Windows operating system.
2.3 Speech technology
Since the mid-90s, after the appearance of inexpensive sound cards and the widespread use of speech recognition technologies, the so-called "speech technology" of the SILK interface has appeared. With this technology, commands are given by voice by pronouncing special reserved words - commands. The main such teams (according to the rules of the Gorynych system) are:
"Wake up" - turn on the voice interface.
"Rest" - turn off the speech interface.
"Open" - switching to the mode of calling a particular program. The name of the program is called in the next word.
"I will dictate" - the transition from the mode of commands to the mode of typing by voice.
"Command mode" - return to voice commands.
and some others.
Words should be pronounced clearly, at the same pace. There is a pause between words. Due to the underdevelopment of the speech recognition algorithm, such systems require individual pre-configuration for each specific user.
The "speech" technology is the simplest implementation of the SILK interface.
2.4 Biometric technology
This technology originated in the late 1990s and is still being developed at the time of this writing. To control the computer, a person's facial expression, the direction of his gaze, the size of the pupil, and other signs are used. To identify the user, the pattern of the iris of his eyes, fingerprints and other unique information is used. Images are read from a digital video camera, and then commands are extracted from this image using special image recognition programs. This technology is likely to take its place in software products and applications where it is important to accurately identify a computer user.
2.5 Semantic (public) interface
This type of interface arose in the late 70s of the XX century, with the development of artificial intelligence. It can hardly be called an independent type of interface - it includes a command line interface, and a graphical, speech, and mimic interface. Its main distinguishing feature is the absence of commands when communicating with a computer. The request is formed in natural language, in the form of associated text and images. At its core, it is difficult to call it an interface - it is already a simulation of "communication" between a person and a computer. Since the mid-1990s, there have been no publications related to the semantic interface. It seems that due to the important military significance of these developments (for example, for the autonomous conduct of modern combat by machines - robots, for "semantic" cryptography), these areas were classified. Information that these studies are ongoing occasionally appears in periodicals (usually in computer news sections).
2.6 Interface types
There are two types of user interfaces:
1) procedurally oriented:
-primitive
-menu
- with free navigation
2) object-oriented:
- direct manipulation.
A procedural-oriented interface uses the traditional user interaction model based on the concepts of "procedure" and "operation". Within this model, the software provides the user with the ability to perform some actions for which the user determines the conformity of the data and the consequence of which is to obtain the desired result.
Object-oriented interfaces use a user interaction model focused on manipulating domain objects. Within this model, the user is given the opportunity to directly interact with each object and initiate the execution of operations during which several objects interact. The user's task is formulated as a purposeful change of some object. An object is understood in the broad sense of the word - a model of a database, system, etc. An object-oriented interface assumes that user interaction is carried out by selecting and moving icons of the corresponding object-oriented area. There are single document (SDI) and multiple document (MDI) interfaces.
Procedurally oriented interfaces:
1) Provide the user with the functions necessary to complete tasks;
2) The emphasis is on tasks;
3) Icons represent applications, windows or operations;
4) The content of folders and directories is reflected using a list table.
Object Oriented Interfaces:
1) Provides the user with the ability to interact with objects;
2) Emphasis is placed on inputs and results;
3) Pictograms represent objects;
4) Folders and directories are visual containers of objects.
A primitive is an interface that organizes interaction with the user and is used in console mode. The only deviation from the sequential process that is provided by data is the organization of a cycle for processing several sets of data.
Interface Menu. Unlike the primitive interface, it allows the user to select an operation from a special list displayed to him by the program. These interfaces involve the implementation of many work scenarios, the sequence of actions in which is determined by users. The tree-like organization of the menu implies a strictly limited implementation. In this case, there are two options for organizing the menu:
each menu window takes up the entire screen
there are several multi-level menus on the screen at the same time (Windows).
In conditions of limited navigation, regardless of the implementation, finding an item of more than two level menus turns out to be quite a challenge.
Free navigation interface (GUI). Supports the concept of interactive interaction with software, visual feedback with the user and the possibility of direct manipulation of the object (buttons, indicators, status bars). Unlike the Menu interface, the free-navigation interface provides the ability to perform any operations valid in a particular state, which can be accessed through various interface components ("hot" keys, etc.). The freely navigable interface is implemented using event programming, which involves the use of visual development tools (through messages).
3. Information technology
3.1 concept of information technology
Definition of information technology
Technology when translated from Greek (techne) means art, skill, skill, and this is nothing more than processes. Under process it is necessary to understand a certain set of actions aimed at achieving the goal. The process should be determined by the strategy chosen by the person and implemented using a combination of various means and methods.
Under material production technology understand the process, determined by the totality of means and methods of processing, manufacturing, changing the state, properties, form of raw materials or material. Technology changes the quality or initial state of matter in order to obtain a material product ( http://www.stu.ru/inform/glaves/glava3/ - ris_3_10 rice. 1.7).
Information is one of the most valuable resources of society, along with such traditional material types of resources as oil, gas, minerals, etc., which means that the process of its processing, by analogy with the processes of processing material resources, can be perceived as a technology. Then the following definition holds.
Information technology- a process that uses a set of means and methods for collecting, processing and transmitting data (primary information) to obtain new quality information about the state of an object, process or phenomenon (information product).
Purpose of technology material production - the output of products that meet the needs of a person or system.
Purpose of information technology- the production of information for its analysis by a person and the adoption on its basis of a decision to perform an action.
It is known that by using different technologies to the same material resource, you can get different products, products. The same will be true for information processing technology.
For comparison in tab_3_3 the main components of both types of technologies are given.
Table 1.3. Comparison of the main components of technologies
Components of technologies for the production of products
material
information
Preparation of raw materials and supplies
Collection of data or primary information
Production of a material product
Data processing and obtaining information results
Sales of manufactured consumer products
Transferring the results of information to the user for making decisions based on it
New information technology
Information technology is the most important part of the process of using information resources society. To date, it has gone through several evolutionary stages, the change of which was determined mainly by the development of scientific and technological progress, the emergence of new technical means of information processing. In modern society, the main technical means of information processing technology is a personal computer, which significantly influenced both the concept of building and using technological processes, and the quality of the resulting information. The introduction of the personal computer in information sphere and the use of telecommunication means of communication determined a new stage in the development of information technology and, as a result, a change in its name by adding one of the synonyms: "new", "computer" or "modern".
The adjective "new" emphasizes the innovative rather than evolutionary nature of this technology. Its implementation is an innovative act in the sense that it significantly changes the content of various activities in organizations. The concept of new information technology also includes communication technologies, which ensure the transmission of information by various means, namely, telephone, telegraph, telecommunications, fax, etc. == tab. 1.4 shows the main characteristic features of the new information technology.
Table 1.4. Main characteristics of the new information technology
Methodology
Main feature
Result
Fundamentally new means of information processing
Embedding in control technology
New communication technology
Holistic technological systems
Integration of functions of specialists and managers
New Information Processing Technology
Purposeful creation, transmission, storage and display of information
Accounting for the laws of the social environment
New technology for making managerial decisions
New information technology - information technology with a "friendly" user interface, using personal computers and telecommunications.
The adjective "computer" emphasizes that the main technical means of its implementation is a computer.
Remember! Three basic principles of new (computer) information technology:
Interactive (dialogue) mode of work with a computer;
Integration (connection, interconnection) with other software products;
· flexibility in the process of changing both data and task definitions.
Apparently, the term should be considered more accurate. new, but not computer Information Technology, because it reflects in its structure not only technologies based on the use of computers, but also technologies based on other technical means, especially those that provide telecommunications.
Information Technology Toolkit
The implementation of the technological process of material production is carried out using various technical means, which include: equipment, machines, tools, conveyor lines, etc.
By analogy, there should be something similar for information technology. Such technical means of information production will be the hardware, software and mathematical support of this process. With their help, primary information is processed into information of a new quality. Let us single out software products separately from these tools and call them a toolkit, and for greater clarity, we can specify it by calling it an information technology software toolkit. Let's define this concept.
Information technology tool - one or more related software products for a specific type of computer, the technology of which allows you to achieve the goal set by the user.
As tools, you can use the following common types of software products for a personal computer: word processor (editor), desktop publishing systems, spreadsheets, database management systems, electronic notebooks, electronic calendars, functional information systems (financial, accounting, for marketing, etc.), expert systems, etc.
How information technology and information system relate
Information technology is closely related to information systems, which are its main environment. At first glance, it may seem that the definitions of information technology and system introduced in the textbook are very similar to each other. However, it is not.
Information technology is a process consisting of clearly regulated rules for performing operations, actions, stages of varying degrees of complexity on data stored in computers. The main goal of information technology is to obtain the information necessary for the user as a result of targeted actions for the processing of primary information.
An information system is an environment whose constituent elements are computers, computer networks, software products, databases, people, various kinds of technical and software communications, etc. The main purpose of an information system is to organize the storage and transmission of information. An information system is a human-computer information processing system.
The implementation of the functions of an information system is impossible without knowledge of the information technology oriented towards it. Information technology can also exist outside the scope of the information system.
Thus, information technology is a more capacious concept that reflects the modern understanding of the processes of converting information into information society. The skillful combination of two information technologies - management and computer - is the key to the successful operation of the information system.
Summarizing all of the above, we offer somewhat narrower than previously introduced definitions of an information system and technology implemented by means of computer technology.
Information technology is a set of well-defined purposeful actions of personnel for processing information on a computer.
Information system - to man - computer system for decision support and production information products using computer information technology.
Components of information technology
Used in the manufacturing sector, such technological concepts as a norm, standard, technological process, technological operation, etc., can also be used in information technology. Before developing these concepts in any technology, including information technology, one should always start with the definition of the goal. Then you should try to structure all the proposed actions leading to the intended goal, and select the necessary software tools.
On fig. 1.8 the technological process of information processing is presented in the form of a hierarchical structure by levels:
Rice. 1.8. Representation of information technology in the form of a hierarchical structure consisting of stages, actions, operations
1st level - stages, where relatively long technological processes are implemented, consisting of operations and actions of subsequent levels.
2nd level - operations, as a result of which a specific object will be created in the software environment selected at the 1st level.
3rd level - actions- a set of work methods standard for each software environment, leading to the fulfillment of the goal set in the corresponding operation. Each action changes the content of the screen.
It must be understood that the development of information technology and its further use should come down to the fact that you must first master a set of elementary operations, the number of which is limited. Of this limited number of elementary operations in different combinations an action is compiled, and from the actions, also in different combinations, operations are made that determine one or another technological stage. The set of technological stages forms a technological process (technology).
3.2 Stages of information technology development
There are several points of view on the development of information technologies using computers, which are determined by various signs of division.
Common to all the approaches outlined below is that with the advent of the personal computer began new stage development of information technology. The main goal is to satisfy the personal information needs of a person both for the professional sphere and for everyday life.
Division sign - type of tasks and information processing processes
Stage 1 (60-70s) - data processing in computer centers in the mode of collective use. The main direction in the development of information technology was the automation of operational routine human actions.
Stage 2 (from the 80s) - the creation of information technologies aimed at solving strategic problems.
Sign of division - problems standing in the way of informatization of society
Stage 1 (until the end of the 1960s) is characterized by the problem of processing large amounts of data in conditions of limited hardware capabilities.
The 2nd stage (until the end of the 70s) is associated with the spread of the IBM / 360 series computers. The problem of this stage is the software lagging behind the level of hardware development.
3rd - stage (since the beginning of the 80s) - the computer becomes a tool for a non-professional user, and information systems - a means of supporting his decision-making. Problems - the maximum satisfaction of the user's needs and the creation of an appropriate interface for working in a computer environment.
4th stage (from the beginning of the 90s) - creation modern technology inter organizational relations and information systems. The problems of this stage are very numerous. The most significant of them are:
development of agreements and establishment of standards, protocols for computer communication;
organization of access to strategic information;
Organization of protection and security of information.
The sign of division is an advantage that computer technology brings
· The 1st stage (since the beginning of the 60s) is characterized by rather efficient information processing when performing routine operations with a focus on centralized collective use of computer center resources. The main criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of the created information systems was the difference between the funds spent on development and the funds saved as a result of implementation. The main problem at this stage was psychological - poor interaction between users, for whom information systems were created, and developers due to the difference in their views and understanding of the problems being solved. As a consequence of this problem, systems were created that were poorly perceived by users and, despite their rather large capabilities, were not used to the full.
· The 2nd stage (since the mid-70s) is associated with the advent of personal computers. The approach to creating information systems has changed - the orientation is shifting towards the individual user to support his decisions. The user is interested in the ongoing development, contact is established with the developer, and mutual understanding arises between both groups of specialists. At this stage, both centralized data processing, typical for the first stage, and decentralized, based on solving local problems and working with local databases at the user's workplace, are used.
· The 3rd stage (since the beginning of the 90s) is associated with the concept of analysis of strategic advantages in business and is based on the achievements of telecommunications technology for distributed information processing. Information systems aim not just to increase the efficiency of data processing and help the manager. Appropriate information technology should help the organization survive the competition and gain an advantage.
Sign of division - types of technology tools
1st stage (until the second half of the 19th century) - "manual" information technology, the tools of which were: pen, inkwell, book. Communications were carried out manually by sending letters, packages, dispatches through the mail. The main goal of technology is to present information in the right form.
2nd stage (from the end of the 19th century) - "mechanical" technology, the tools of which were: a typewriter, telephone, voice recorder, equipped with more advanced means of mail delivery. The main goal of technology is to present information in the right form by more convenient means.
3rd stage (40 - 60s of the XX century) - "electric" technology, the tools of which were: large computers and related software, electric typewriters, photocopiers, portable voice recorders.
The purpose of the technology is changing. The emphasis in information technology is beginning to shift from the form of information presentation to the formation of its content.
4th stage (from the beginning of the 70s) - "electronic" technology, the main tools of which are large computers and automated control systems (ACS) and information retrieval systems (IPS) created on their basis, equipped with a wide range of basic and specialized software systems. The center of gravity of technology is shifting even more to the formation of the content side of information for the management environment of various spheres of public life, especially to the organization of analytical work. Many objective and subjective factors did not allow us to solve the tasks set for the new concept of information technology. However, experience was gained in the formation of the content side of management information and a professional, psychological and social basis was prepared for the transition to a new stage in the development of technology.
5th stage (since the mid-80s) - "computer"("new") technology, the main tool of which is a personal computer with a wide range of standard software products for various purposes. At this stage, the process of personalization of automated control systems takes place, which manifests itself in the creation of decision support systems by certain specialists. Such systems have built-in elements of analysis and intelligence for different levels management are implemented on personal computer and use telecommunications. In connection with the transition to the microprocessor base, technical means for domestic, cultural and other purposes are also undergoing significant changes. Beginning to be widely used in various areas global and local computer networks.
4. Types of information technology
4.1 Information technology data processing
Characteristics and purpose
information technology data processing is designed to solve well-structured problems for which the necessary input data are available and algorithms and other standard procedures for their processing are known. This technology is used at the level of operational (executive) activities of low-skilled personnel in order to automate some routine, constantly recurring operations of managerial work. Therefore, the introduction of information technologies and systems at this level will significantly increase the productivity of personnel, free them from routine operations, and possibly even lead to the need to reduce the number of employees.
At the level of operations, the following tasks are solved:
processing of data on operations performed by the company;
Creation of periodic control reports on the state of affairs in the company;
Receiving answers to all kinds of current requests and processing them in the form paper documents or reports.
Example of a control report: a daily report on receipts and disbursements of cash by a bank, generated in order to control the balance of cash.
Query Example: A query against a Human Resources database that will provide information about the requirements for candidates for a particular position.
There are several features associated with data processing that distinguish this technology from all others:
Performing data processing tasks required by the company. Every firm is required by law to have and store data on its activities, which can be used as a means of establishing and maintaining control over the firm. Therefore, any company must necessarily have an information system for data processing and develop an appropriate information technology;
solving only well-structured problems for which an algorithm can be developed;
· performance standard procedures processing. Existing standards define standard data processing procedures and require organizations of all kinds to follow them;
Execution of the main scope of work in automatic mode with minimal human involvement;
use of detailed data. Records of the firm's activities are detailed (detailed) in nature, allowing for audits. In the audit process, the company's activities are checked chronologically from the beginning of the period to its end and from the end to the beginning;
emphasis on the chronology of events;
Requirement of minimal assistance in solving problems from specialists of other levels.
Main Components
Let us present the main components of information technology for data processing ( http://www.stu.ru/inform/glaves/glava3/ - ris_3_12 rice. 1.9) and give their characteristics.
Data collection. As a firm produces a product or service, each of its actions is accompanied by corresponding data records. Usually, the actions of the firm that affect the external environment are singled out specifically as operations carried out by the firm.
Data processing. To create information from the incoming data that reflects the activities of the company, the following typical operations are used:
classification or grouping. Primary data usually take the form of codes consisting of one or more characters. These codes, expressing certain features of objects, are used to identify and group records.
Data storage. Much data at the operational level needs to be stored for later use, either here or at another level. Databases are created to store them.
Creation of reports (documents). In the information technology of data processing, it is necessary to create documents for the management and employees of the company, as well as for external partners. At the same time, documents or in connection with the operation carried out by the company and periodically at the end of each month, quarter or year.
4.2 Management information technology
Characteristics and purpose
The purpose of information technology management is to meet the information needs of all employees of the company, without exception, dealing with decision-making. It can be useful at any level of management.
This technology is focused on working in the environment of an information management system and is used when the tasks being solved are worse structured when compared with the tasks solved using information technology for data processing.
Management IS are ideally suited to meet the similar information needs of employees of various functional subsystems (divisions) or levels of company management. The information they provide contains information about the past, present and probable: the future of the company. This information takes the form of regular or ad hoc management reports.
To make decisions at the level of management control, information must be presented in an aggregated form so that data trends, causes of deviations and possible solutions can be seen. At this stage, the following data processing tasks are solved:
assessment of the planned state of the control object;
assessment of deviations from the planned state;
Identification of the causes of deviations;
· analysis possible solutions and action.
Management information technology is aimed at creating various types of reports .
Regular reports are generated according to a set schedule that determines when they are generated, such as a monthly analysis of a company's sales.
Special reports are created at the request of managers or when something unplanned happened in the company.
Both types of reports may take the form of summary, comparative and extraordinary reports.
AT summarizing In reports, data is combined into separate groups, sorted and presented as intermediate and final totals for individual fields.
Comparative reports contain data obtained from various sources or classified according to various criteria and used for comparison purposes.
emergency reports contain data of an exceptional (extraordinary) nature.
The use of reports to support management is particularly effective in the implementation of so-called variance management.
Deviation management assumes that the main content of the data received by the manager should be deviations of the state of the company's economic activity from certain established standards (for example, from its planned state). When using the principles of variance management in a company, the following requirements are imposed on the generated reports:
· a report should only be generated when a deviation has occurred;
information in the report should be sorted by the value of the indicator that is critical for this deviation;
It is desirable to show all deviations together so that the manager can catch the connection between them;
· In the report it is necessary to show a quantitative deviation from the norm.
Main Components
The main components of management information technology are shown in fig. 1.13
Input information comes from operational level systems. The output information is formed in the form management reports in a form convenient for decision making.
The contents of the database are converted by appropriate software into periodic and ad hoc reports for the decision makers of the organization. Database used to retrieve specified information, should consist of two elements:
1) data accumulated on the basis of an assessment of the operations conducted by the firm;
2) plans, standards, budgets and other regulatory documents that determine the planned state of the control object (firm division).
5. The role and importance of information technology
The modern period of development of a civilized society characterizes the process of informatization.
Informatization of society is a global social process, the peculiarity of which is that the dominant activity in the sphere of social production is the collection, accumulation, production, processing, storage, transmission and use of information, carried out on the basis of modern means microprocessor and computer technology, as well as on the basis of various means of information exchange. Informatization of society provides:
active use of the constantly expanding intellectual potential of the society, concentrated in the printed fund, and scientific, industrial and other activities of its members;
integration of information technologies into scientific and industrial activities, initiating the development of all spheres of social production, the intellectualization of labor activity;
high level of information service, accessibility of any member of society to sources of reliable information, visualization of the information provided, materiality of the data used.
The use of open information systems designed to use the entire array of information available in this moment society in its certain area, allows to improve the mechanisms of managing the social structure, contributes to the humanization and democratization of society, increases the level of well-being of its members. The processes taking place in connection with the informatization of society contribute not only to the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the intellectualization of all types of human activity, but also to the creation of a qualitatively new information environment of society, which ensures the development of the individual's creative potential. One of the directions of the process of informatization of modern society is the informatization of education - the process of providing the education sector with the methodology and practice of developing and optimal use modern or, as they are commonly called, new information technologies focused on the implementation of the psychological and pedagogical goals of training and education.
The informatization process also affected the economic sectors. Their radical improvement and adaptation to modern conditions became possible due to the massive use of the latest computer and telecommunications technology, the formation of highly efficient information and management technologies on its basis. Means and methods of applied informatics are used in management and marketing. New technologies based on computer technology, require radical changes in the organizational structures of management, its regulations, human resources, documentation system, recording and transmission of information. New information technologies significantly expand the possibilities of using information resources in various industries, as well as in education.
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